UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

LIBRARY 


MOORE  AND  HALLIGAN'S  PLANT  PRODUCTION 

EDITED  BY 
KIRK  LESTER  HATCH,   B.S. 

PROFESSOR   OF  AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN,   MADISON 


PLANT    PRODUCTION 

PART    I--AGRONOMY 
PART  II  —  HORTICULTURE 


BY 

RANSOM   A.    MOORE 

PROFESSOR    OF    AGRONOMY,    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    WISCONSIN 

MADISON 

AND 

CHARLES    P.    HALLIGAN,    B.S. 

PROFESSOR    OF    LANDSCAPE    GARDENING 
MICHIGAN  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,  EAST   LANSING 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

LIBRARY 

BRANCH  OF  THE 

COLLEGE  0'~  AGRICULTURE 

AMERICAN   BOOK   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 

BOSTON  ATLANTA 


COPYRIGHT,  1919,  BY 
AMERICAN    BOOK  COMPANY 

ALL  RIGHTS   RESERVED 


GENERAL   INTRODUCTION 

THIS  series  of  agricultural  texts  is  based  on  the  theory  that 
the  successful  farmer  should  know  the  physical  and  biological 
forces  with  which  he  has  to  contend ;  that  he  should  understand 
the  laws  under  which  these  forces  operate ;  and  that  he  should 
acquire  some  skill  in  directing  them.  He  should  ultimately 
become  able  to  adjust  and  correlate  these  forces  so  as  to  bring 
them  all  under  the  orderly  operation  of  economic  law.  In  con- 
formity with  the  above  theory  this  series  has  been  made  to  cover 
the  following  fundamental  divisions : 

The  science  and  art  of  producing  agricultural  plants. 

The  production,  care,  and  management  of  farm  animals. 

The  establishment  and  conservation  of  soil  fertility,  with  the 
chemistry  of  the  same  in  relation  to  plant  and  animal  production. 

The  proper  balance  and  combination  of  these  three  aspects 
of  agricultural  production,  in  the  business  management  of  the 
farm. 

What  Vocational  Agriculture  Demands.  —  Vocational  train- 
ing in  agriculture  should  differ  from  trade  instruction  in 
one  most  important  regard :  trade  training  develops  skilled 
workers  for  the  various  branches  of  an  industry ;  it  neither 
develops,  nor  aims  to  develop,  factory  managers.  It  usually 
deals  with  parts  of  the  construction,  less  frequently  with  the 
finished  product,  and  more  rarely  still  with  the  management 
of  the  manufacturing  plant.  Vocational  agriculture,  on  the 
other  hand,  must  train  for  the  operation  of  the  whole  plant,  as 
the  farm  is  a  unit  in  itself.  The  trained  farmer  must  be  skilled, 
not  only  in  the  arts  of  his  varied  industry,  but  also  in  the  scien- 

5 

401777 


6  GENERAL .  INTROD  UCTION 

i ,    t  "    »  «   • 
I-  .  •.  • 

tific  irana.ja-mtT.tbf  the  enti/e  Mr/n.     Added  to  skill  there  must 
be  knowledge  and  'understanding*. 

What  the  Federal  Law  Requires.  —  Under  the  Smith-Hughes 
law  passed  by  Congress  early  in  1917,  vocational  instruction 
in  agriculture  —  to  quote  its  language  —  "  must  provide  for 
directed  or  supervised  practice  in  agriculture  either  in  a  farm 
provided  by  the  school  or  other  farms  for  at  least  six  months 
per  year."  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  meaning  or  the 
intent  of  this  law.  It  demands  that  agricultural  instruction 
shall  be  useful,  practical,  and  of  immediate  application. 

What  This  Text  is  Designed  to  Accomplish.  —  The  authors 
of  this  book  have  long  held  the  opinion  that  is  expressed  in. 
the  Smith-Hughes  law  and  made  a  condition  of  its  fulfilment. 
They  have  therefore  made  radical  departures  from  the  usual 
style  of  textbook  construction.  In  addition  to  the  informa- 
tional material,  emphasis  is  placed  on  frequent  sets  of  Exercise* 
intended  to  provoke  class  discussion  and  to  direct  attention 
to  the  established  practices  on  the  home  farm.  Following 
these  exercises  are  lists  of  Home  Projects  designed  to  suggest 
how  the  lessons  gained  from  study  of  the  text  may  be  turned  at 
once  to  practical  account. 

It  is  believed  that  by  following  the  plan  set  forth  in  this 
volume  teachers  of  vocational  agriculture  may  fulfil  the  most 
vigorous  demands  of  the  Smith-Hughes  law.  It  is  hoped  that 
students  may  also  find  herein  something  of  inspiration,  as  well 
as  of  immediate  practical  use. 

KIRK  LESTER   HATCH. 


PREFACE 

Agronomy.  —  The  farm  crops  of  a  country  are  the  foundation 
of  its  agriculture.  All  farm  boys  and  others  interested  in  agri- 
culture should  make  a  careful  study  of  these  crops.  The  Field 
Crops  Section  of  PLANT  PRODUCTION  is  designed  for  those  who 
desire  a  plain  practical  treatise  on  the  various  field  crops.  Only 
the  more  important  economic  plants  have  been  discussed.  The 
aim  of  the  authors  has  been  to  present  the  subject  matter  in 
such  simplified  form  that  there  will  be  no  doubt  as  to  its  mean- 
ing in  the  mind  of  the  reader.  The  various  home  projects 
presented  will  enable  the  student  to  put  what  he  has  learned  into 
actual  practice. 

The  simple  truth  concerning  the  growth  of  farm  crops,  im- 
pressed upon  the  student  as  nature  unfolds  to  him  her  secrets, 
should  develop  interest  in  agriculture  and  a  better  understand- 
ing of  the  many  interesting  facts  of  science  continually  unfolded 
before  our  eyes  in  the  everyday  world  in  which  we  live. 

After  many  years  of  teaching  experience  with  young  people 
from  the  farms,  the  authors  have  endeavored  to  put  into  book 
form  the  methods  which  proved  most  successful  in  impressing 
young  people  with  the  value  and  importance  of  pure-bred  seeds 
and  the  best  practice  in  the  growing  and  handling  of  farm  crops. 

Horticulture.  —  The  text  in  horticulture  aims  to  present 
in  a  simple,  direct,  and  logical  manner  the  basic  principles  gov- 
erning its  practice,  with  such  typical,  suggestive  questions, 
problems,  and  exercises  on  the  text  as  might  be  used  for  class 
work. 

This  branch  of  agriculture,  dealing  as  it  does  with  considera- 
tion of  the  individual  plant  as  a  unit,  is  most  adaptable  to  peda- 

7 


8  PREFACE 

gogical  practice,  and  is  an  excellent  foundational  study  for 
general  agriculture. 

The  teacher  will  find  that  it  can  readily  be  adapted  to  local 
conditions,  emphasizing  the  particular  part  that  is  of  most 
importance  in  the  locality.  However,  one  should  not  overlook 
the  general  educational  value  of  the  subject  matter  that  is  not 
of  economic  importance  in  the  immediate  neighborhood. 

In  country  districts  where  fruits  may  be  grown  successfully 
this  particular  portion  of  the  text  may  be  emphasized,  while  in 
other  country  sections  vegetable  gardening  may  prove  of  greater 
interest.  Under  such  conditions  the  primary  aim  of  the  teacher 
should  be  to  arouse  interest  and  enthusiasm  for  this  work 
rather  than  to  emphasize  the  presentation  of  an  endless  list  of 
cultural  facts. 

In  the  town  or  city  the  more  intensive  phases  of  the  work, 
such  as  the  growing  of  crops  under  glass,  may  prove  most  ap- 
pealing. Here,  too,  a  study  of  the  ornamental  trees  and  plants 
will  arouse  an  interest  in  and  respect  for  these  things  in  the 
work  of  civic  development. 

R.   A.   MOORE. 
C.   P.   HALLIGAN. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.     AGRONOMY 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.     THE  SOIL  AND  THE  PLANT n 

II.     CORN 17 

III.  CORN  AND  GRAIN  JUDGING 41 

IV.  WHEAT 67 

V.     BARLEY 79 

VI.     OATS   .                                         91 

VII.     RYE 101 

VIII.     BUCKWHEAT 107 

IX.     GRAIN  BREEDING 112 

X.    LEGUMINOUS  CROPS 120 

XI.     ALFALFA      .        .        . 141 

XII.     THE  HAY  GRASSES 161 

XIII.  POTATOES 174 

XIV.  COTTON .        .        .  188 

PART  II.     HORTICULTURE 

I.     PROPAGATION  BY  SEEDS  AND  SPORES         .        .        .201 
II.     PROPAGATION  BY  SEPARATION,  DIVISION,  AND  LAYER- 
AGE 210 

III.  PROPAGATION  BY  CUTTINGS        .        .        .        .        .217 

IV.  GRAFTING 228 

V.     FRUIT  GROWING 240 

VI.     ORCHARD  MANAGEMENT 253 

VII.     FRUIT  PESTS       ...                .                .        .  267 

9 


IO 

CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

VIII. 

« 
SPRAYING  MIXTURES  

PAGE 

283 

IX. 

THINNING,  HARVESTING,  AND  STORING  FRUIT  . 

2QI 

X. 

THE  POMES  —  APPLES,  PEARS,  AND  QUINCES    . 

301 

XI. 

STONE  FRUITS  —  PEACHES,  PLUMS,  AND  CHERRIES  . 

310 

XII. 

GRAPES,  STRAWBERRIES,  AND  BUSH  FRUITS 

319 

XIII. 

VEGETABLE  GARDENING      ...... 

337 

XIV. 

MANURE  AND  COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS   . 

348 

XV. 

TILLAGE  AND  IRRIGATION  

354 

XVI. 

GLASS    STRUCTURES    AND    CARE    OF    GREENHOUSE 

CROPS      

360 

XVII. 

SEED  SOWING  AND  TRANSPLANTING   .... 

368 

XVIII. 

HARVESTING,  MARKETING,  AND  STORING  VEGETABLES 

376 

XIX. 

LANDSCAPE  GARDENING      ...... 

382 

XX. 

TREES,  SHRUBS,  VINES,  AND  FLOWERS 

308 

APPENDIX         .         .         
INDEX 

413 
417 

PART    I.    AGRONOMY 

CHAPTER   I 
THE   SOIL  AND   THE  PLANT 

What  Plants  Get  from  the  Soil.  —  About  5  per  cent  of 
the  weight  of  a  plant  is  made  up  of  elements  that  come 
from  the  soil,  and  about  95  per  cent  is  composed  of  ele- 
ments that  come  from  air  and  water.  The  most  impor- 
tant elements  taken  from  the  soil  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
potassium,  and  calcium.  The  elements  that  a  plant  takes 
from  air  and  water  are  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen. 
When  a  plant  is  burned  these  last  three  elements  and  nitro- 
gen disappear  into  the  air.  In  the  ash  that  remains  are 
all  the  elements,  except  nitrogen,  that  came  from  the  soil. 
At  the  outset  it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  that  although  four 
fifths  of  the  air  is  nitrogen,  plants  cannot  get  this  element 
directly  from  the  air,  but  obtain  it  from  nitrogen-con- 
taining substances  in  the  soil. 

What  Soil  Is. — The  soil  consists  of  mineral  particles; 
decaying  plants  and  animals;  living  organisms,  such  as 
bacteria  and  worms ;  soil  water ;  and  soil  air.  The  min- 
eral particles  have  been  formed  by  the  breaking  up  and 
decay  of  solid  rock.  Rain,  air,  frost,  and  streams  are 
some  of  the  agencies  that  have  changed  solid  rock  into 
soil.  Even  earthworms  and  many  other  small  forms  of 
animal  life  are  active  agencies  in  making  soil.  The  de- 
caying plants  and  animals  form  the  organic  matter  of  the 


12 


THE  SOIkfAND  THE  PLANT 

i  *    •  *•  * 

soil,  which  is  generally!  called; humus.     The  soil  water  and 
soil  air  occupy  the  pores  in  'the  soil. 

Kinds  of  Soils.  --  There  are  three  classes  of  soils  on 


Fig.   i.  —  A  rich  soil  containing  much  humus. 

the  basis  of  the  size  of  the  soil  particles.  Soils  made  up 
wholly  of  very  fine  particles  are  called  clay  soils.  Those 
composed  largely  of  particles  of  sand  are  called  sandy 
soils.  Soils  consisting  of  large  amounts  of  both  clay  and 
sand  are  called  loams.  Loams  are  the  most  satisfactory 
soils  for  most  crops,  because  they  are  easily  cultivated,  do 
not  bake,  and  hold  moisture  well.  Sandy  soils  dry  out 
rapidly  and  clay  soils  bake  in  the  hot  sun  after  heavy 
rains.  The  special  methods  for  handling  these  soils  are 
taken  up  later  in  this  text  in  connection  with  the  respective 
crops  best  adapted  to  them. 

Color  of  Soils.  — The  color  of  soils  is  due  to  decaying 
organic  matter  and  to  mineral  substances  which  they  con- 
tain. The  black  color  of  soil  is  due  mainly  to  the  de- 
caying vegetable  matter.  Even  the  red  clays  turn  black 
when  fertilized  with  barnyard  manure  for  some  time. 


WATER  IN   THE  SOIL  13 

Black  soil  is  not  necessarily,  as  is  popularly  supposed,  a 
rich  soil.  However,  a  black  soil  is  likely  to  contain  a  good 
deal  of  humus,  which  aids  greatly  in  plant  growth. 

The  red  color  of  some  soils  is  due  to  the  red  iron  oxide 
they  contain.  Another  form  of  iron  oxide  is  yellow,  and 
this  gives  the  yellow  color  so  common  to  clays. 

Water  in  the  Soil.  —  Suppose  that  we  have  before  us  a 
flowerpot  filled  with  soil  that  is  saturated  with  water.  In 
this  condition  the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles  are 
filled  with  water  and  the  soil  air  is  thus  excluded.  Through 
the  opening  in  the  bottom  of 
the  flowerpot  a  large  part  of 
the  water  will  drain  away. 
This  is  called  free  or  gravita- 
tional water.  After  all  the 
gravitational  water  has  dripped 
away  part  of  the  water  re- 
mains. It  exists  as  thin  films 
around  the  particles  of  soil 

Fig.  2.  —  Capillary  water. 

and  is  called  film  or  capillary 

water.  The  capillary  water  moves  in  any  direction,  but 
always  toward  the  driest  portion  of  the  soil.  In  dry 
weather  the  roots  of  the  crops  are  supplied  with  moisture 
from  the  saturated  zone  of  the  ground,  which  may  be  sev- 
eral feet  down,  by  the  force  which  we  call  capillary  attrac- 
tion. Thus  the  capillary  water  moves  through  the  soil 
very  much  as  oil  moves  through  the  wick  of  a  lamp. 

It  is  the  capillary  water  in  the  soil  that  is  useful  to  plants. 
In  soil  that  is  saturated  with  water,  crops  cannot  thrive 
because  the  soil  air  is  excluded.  Therefore,  it  is  important 
that  the  supply  of  capillary  water  be  maintained  by  proper 
methods  of  tillage.  The  ground  must  be  kept  in  such  a 


14  THE   SOIL  AND   THE  PLANT 

condition  that  capillary  water  can  move  upward  from  the 
great  reservoir  of  ground  water  to  the  roots  of  the  crops 
and  that  excessive  evaporation  from  the  surface  is  pre- 
vented. Capillary  moisture  passes  very  slowly  through  a 


Fig    3-  —  Characteristic  root  growth  of  alfalfa. 

layer  of  cloddy  soil,  heavy  sod,  or  coarse  manure.  There- 
fore it  is  necessary  before  planting  a  crop  that  the  soil  be 
well  pulverized  and  that  there  has  been  sufficient  time  after 
plowing  for  the  sod  or  coarse  manure,  which  has  been 


ESSENTIAL   FERTILIZERS  15 

turned  under,  to  decay.  Excessive  evaporation  can  be 
prevented  by  shallow  cultivation  after  a  crop  has  been 
planted.  After  a  shallow  cultivation  the  fine  soil  on  top 
dries  out  quickly ;  and  in  a  loose,  dry  condition  it  acts  as 
a  barrier  to  the  upward  movement  of  the  capillary  water 
beneath.  Thus  this  layer  of  fine,  dry  soil,  which  is  called 
a  soil  mulch,  acts  as  a  blanket  to  prevent  evaporation. 
When  a  soil  mulch  becomes  compacted  by  a  rain  it  no 
longer  acts  as  a  barrier  to  capillary  water  and  excessive 
evaporation  begins  anew.  The  ground  should  be  given  a 
shallow  cultivation  after  each  rain  in  order  to  form  a  new 
mulch. 

Essential  Fertilizers.  —  The  elements  needed  by  plants 
are  found  in  the  soil  in  sufficient  quantity  with  but  three 
exceptions,  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus.  These 
exist  in  the  soil  in  very  small  amounts,  and  if  plants  are 
continually  grown  thereon  and  removed,  these  substances 
soon  become  exhausted.  They  must  be  supplied  to  the 
land  by  some  means  if  good  crops  are  to  be  secured.  Barn- 
yard manure  is  called  a  complete  fertilizer  because  it  con- 
tains all  of  these  three  elements.  It  is  ordinarily  the  best 
fertilizer  to  use  when  it  can  be  obtained.  Nitrogen  is 
furnished  by  legumes.  Other  important  sources  of  nitrogen 
are  cottonseed  meal  and  nitrate  of  soda.  Muriate  of 
potash  is  one  of  the  potassium  fertilizers.  Bone  meal  and 
rock  phosphate  are  added  to  furnish  phosphorus  to  the 
soil. 

Lime  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  on  some  soils,  but  more  often 
it  is  used  to  sweeten  sour  soils.  An  acid,  or  sour,  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  is  unfavorable  to  crops,  and  therefore  this 
action  of  lime  in  destroying  soil  acidity  is  extremely  im- 
portant to  the  farmer. 


16  THE  SOIL  AND  THE  PLANT 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  soils,  classifying  them  in  the  various 
groups  to  which  they  belong. 

2.  Examine  samples  of  soils  with  a  low-power  microscope 
to  detect,  if  possible,  remnants  of  partially  decomposed  plants. 

3.  Fill  a  glass  tube  20  inches  long  and  one  inch  in  diame- 
ter with  air-dry  sand,  another  with  clay,  and  a  third  with  loam, 
after  inserting  a  cotton  plug  in  the  lower  end  of  each  tube. 
Now  set  these  tubes  in  a  pan  of  water  and  note  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  water  rises  in  each  tube.     This  upward  move- 
ment of  water  is  due  to  capillarity. 

4.  Fill  one  of  the  tubes  used  in  the  previous  experiment 
half  full  of  sandy  soil ;  one,  half  full  of  clay  soil ;  and  the  last, 
half  full  of  loam.     Now  place  in  one  a  handful  of  coarse  lumps, 
in  another  a  pinch  of  dry  grass,  and  in  the  third  some  coarse 
straw ;  then  fill  each  tube  to  the  top  with  the  sort  of  soil  used 
in  the  lower  half.     Set  the  tubes  in  the  pan  of  water  used  in 
the  previous  experiment.    Does  the  water  rise  above  the  lumps, 
grass,  or  straw?    Why  not?    What  does  this  teach  about  plow- 
ing, disking,  harrowing,  and  maintaining  a  soil  mulch  to  pre- 
vent evaporation  ? 

5.  Insert  a  glass  tumbler  over  a  small  growing  plant.     Drops 
of  water  soon  appear  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  glass.     Where 
does  this  water  come  from?     What  does  it  teach? 

HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  as  many  kinds  of  soil  as  can  be  found 
on  the  home  farm  or  in  the  neighborhood. 

2.  Make  a  map  of  the  home  farm  and  show  by  means  of 
colors  the  distribution  of  the  various  kinds  of  soil  found  thereon. 


CHAPTER   II 
CORN 

History.  —  The  importance  of  this  cereal  rightfully  gives 
it  first  place  in  the  consideration  of  farm  crops.  No  other 
single  forage  plant  has  exerted  so  beneficial  an  influence  on 
American  agriculture  and  no  other  plant  is  of  greater  intrin- 
sic value.  While  authors  differ  as  to  the  original  home  of 
the  corn  plant,  yet  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  is  of  American 
origin. 

Columbus  found  corn  growing  on  the  islands  that  he 
discovered  on  his  first  voyage  to  America,  and  later  other 
explorers  found  it  on  the  mainland.  The  Indians  used  it 
as  a  food ;  and  samp,  succotash,  and  parched  corn  have 
been  handed  down  to  present  times.  Corn,  cultivated  by 
the  colonists,  followed  the  early  settlers  westward  and 
played  an  important  part  in  our  rapid  agricultural  de- 
velopment. 

Classification.  —  Corn  belongs  to  the  grass  family  and 
to  that  division  known  as  Zea  mays.  The  small  grains, 
rye,  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  in  European  and  Asiatic 
countries  were  known  as  corn;  and  Columbus,  to  distin- 
guish corn  from  the  grains  of  Europe,  called  it  Indian  corn, 
a  name  that  is  still  applied  to  it  in  some  sections  of  the 
country.  However,  it  is  generally  known  as  corn.  The 
corn  family  is  divided  into  six  different  groups :  pod  corn, 
soft  corn,  pop  corn,  sweet  corn,  flint  corn,  and  dent  corn. 
The  first  group  is  of  no  commercial  importance  and  is 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. 2       IJ 


i8 


CORN 


occasionally  found  in  cornfields  as  a  reminder  of  the  tend- 
ency of  corn  to  revert  to  its  original  type.  In  the  pod 
corn  each  kernel  is  inclosed  in  a  separate  husk.  These 
kernels  and  husks  are  arranged  in  regular  rows  upon  the 
cob,  similar  to  our  dent  corn. 

Soft  corn  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  the  South,  in  Mexico, 
and  in  some  of  the  Central  American  States.    It  is  charac- 


Fig.  4.  —  Types  or  breeds  of  corn.     From  left  to  right,  pod  corn,  soft  corn,  pop 
corn,  sweet  corn,  flint  corn,  dent  corn. 

terized  by  its  high  starch  content  and  is  of  little  commercial 

value. 

'     Pop  corn  is  grown  largely  as  a  confectionery  and  is 

handled  principally  by  candy  stores  and  pop-corn  venders. 

It  derives  its  name  from  its  power  to  invert  or  "  pop  " 

when  the  moisture  inclosed  by  the  hard  flinty  endosperm 


KINDS  OF  CORN 


is  subjected  to  high  temperature.  Gardeners  and  some 
farmers  raise  large  quantities  of  pop  corn  for  the  confec- 
tionery market.  The  two  chief  varieties  of  pop  corn  are 
the  rice  and  the  pearl  with  many  variations  in  each.  The 
rice  pop  corn  has  sharp  pointed  kernels  while  the  kernels 
in  the  pearl  have 
rounded  crowns  re- 
sembling the  flint 
corn. 

Sweet  corn  is 
grown  quite  largely 
as  a  green  vegetable 
and  for  canning  pur- 
poses. Many  fac- 
tories throughout  the 
corn  belt  make  a 
specialty  of  canning 
sweet  corn.  Sweet 
corn  is  also  used  for 
feeding  dairy  cattle 
during  the  early  part  of  the  summer  when  feed  is  short. 
It  is  cut  when  the  ears  are  soft  and  the  whole  plant  is  fed. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  sweet  corn,  varying  in  color  from 
white  to  black.  There  are  early,  medium,  and  late  maturing 
varieties.  Consequently  good,  palatable  sweet  corn  can 
be  secured  through  the  larger  portion  of  the  summer  and 
fall.  Among  the  leading  varieties  are  StowelPs  Evergreen, 
Burpee's  Golden  Bantam,  Early  Black  Mexican,  Early 
Champion,  Crosby's,  and  Country  Gentleman. 

Flint  corn  or  Yankee  corn  is  grown  quite  extensively  in 
the  New  England  States  and  in  those  states  where  the 
seasons  are  too  short  for  the  larger  dent  varieties.  The 


Fig.  5.  —  Varieties  of  pop  corn. 


20 


CORN 


Fig.  6.  —  A  sample  of  eight-row  flint  corn. 

flint  corn  often  gives  yields  comparable  with  the  dent  and 
is  high  in  feeding  value.  This  corn  is  readily  recognized 
by  the  smooth  flinty  surface  of  the  kernels.  Many  of  the 
flint  varieties  have  but  eight  rows  to  the  ear ;  some  have 
twelve,  and  fourteen  rows  are  quite  common.  Some  of 
the  leading  varieties  of  flint  corn  are  Yellow  Flint,  White 
Flint,  Red  Flint,  Blue  Flint,  Smut  Nose  Flint,  Sanford's 
Flint,  and  King  Philip  Flint. 

Dent  corn  is  so  called  on  account  of  the  dent  in  the 


Fig.  7.  —  A  sample  of  Wisconsin  No.  7  dent  corn. 


HABITS  OF   GROWTH 


21 


crown  of  each  kernel.  The  dent  varieties  far  exceed  in 
value  all  other  groups  of  corn  combined.  There  are  several 
hundred  varieties  of  dent  corn,  all  of  which  are  subdivisions 
of  Yellow  Dent,  White  Dent,  Red  Dent,  and  Strawberry 
Dent.  Many  of  the  experiment  stations  are  now  breeding 
high  yielding  strains  of  corn  that  are  usually  referred  to  by 
number,  as  Minnesota  No.  13  and  Wisconsin  No.  7.  Occa- 
sionally both  name  and  number  are  given,  as  Golden  Glow, 
Wisconsin  No.  12.  Of  the  white,  Boone  County  White, 


Fig.  8.  —  Well-developed  leaf  surface  of  special  bred  silage  corn. 

Johnson  County  White,  White  Superior,  Silver  King,  and 
Silver  Mine  are  leaders. 

Habits  of  Growth.  —  The  kernel  of  corn  sends  up  but  a 
single  main  stalk.  This  main  stalk  may  branch  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground  in  shoots,  known  as  suckers,  but 
usually  only  one  stalk  puts  forth  from  each  seed.  If  corn 


22  CORN 

is  planted  under  abnormal  conditions  on  very  poor  or  on 
very  rich  soil,  it  will  have  a  tendency  to  sucker.  Where 
corn  is  used  exclusively  as  a  forage,  suckering  is  not  regarded 
as  objectionable.  The  tendency  to  sucker  is  most  charac- 
teristic of  flint  corn. 

Corn  has  two  sets  of  roots :  those  underneath  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  known  as  feeders ;  and  those  attached  to  the 
corn  plant  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  known  as  brace 
roots.  These  brace  roots  aid  in  keeping  the  stalk  erect  and 
in  preventing  the  plant  from  being  blown  over  or  broken 


Fig.  9.  —  Imperfect  fertilization  of  corn. 

down  during  severe  wind  storms.  The  cornstalk  is  sup- 
plied with  joints  or  nodes  from  which  leaves  are  sent  out. 
The  number  of  leaves  on  a  stalk  varies  from  ten  to  twenty 
or  more.  The  entire  leaf  surface  of  a  single  plant  may  be 
equal  to  twenty-four  square  feet.  The  leaf  surface  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  life  functions  of  the  plant,  and  through 
the  tiny  respiratory  openings  of  the  leaf  it  is  enabled  to 
take  in  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  and  to  give  off  soil 
moisture  in  which  the  food  for  the  plant  has  been  absorbed. 
The  plant  is  able  partially  to  control  the  loss  of  moisture 
in  dry  spells  by  the  closing  of  the  transpiration  organs. 


POLLINATION  23 

The  plant  is  also  able  to  prevent  injury  to  its  leaves  by 
taking  on  that  noticeably  wavy  form  which  gives  them 
elasticity. 

Pollination.  —  The  blossom  of  corn  is  imperfect.  Its 
staminate  or  male  flower  is  borne  on  the  tassel,  and 
its  pistillate  flowers,  known  as  the  silks,  on  the  ears. 
There  are  a  sufficient  number  of  silks  so  that  if  each  is 
pollinated  and  produces  a  kernel  of  corn,  a  perfect  ear  is 
formed. 

A  single  tassel  is  able  to  shed  eighteen  million  pollen 
grains,  consequently  great  clouds  of  pollen  are  spread 
over  cornfields  during  the  blossoming  season.  The  vast 
amount  of  pollen  grains  present  in  a  field  of  corn  renders  it 
possible  for  each  silk  to  be  fertilized  and  produce  a  kernel. 
The  silks  at  the  butt  of  the  ear  come  forth  first,  and  those 
up  through  the  center  of  the  ear  follow  toward  the  tip.  If 
a  very  dry  or  a  very  wet  spell  comes  during  the  early  part 
of  the  pollinating  season,  the  butt  silks  will  not  be  perfectly 
pollinated,  and  if  the  dry  or  wet  spell  comes  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  season  the  tip  silks  will  not  be  properly 
fertilized,  and  defective  ears  will  result.  (See  Fig.  9.) 

Pollen  grains  may  be  carried  from  a  fourth  to  a  half  mile 
by  a  strong  wind  and  often  a  field  of  choice  corn  may  be 
crossed  by  an  inferior  variety  grown  in  a  neighboring  field. 
In  order  to  keep  the  variety  of  corn  pure  it  is  necessary  to 
plant  it  a  safe  distance  from  other  fields.  If  a  small  grove 
or  a  hill  lies  between  the  fields,  there  is  little  danger  of  cross- 
ing. The  prevailing  wind  blows  quite  steadily  from  one 
direction  during  the  pollinating  season  and  if  one  variety 
of  corn  is  planted  on  the  side  of  the  field  next  to  the  prevail- 
ing wind,  little  crossing  will  occur  from  the  pollen  of  other 
corn  growing  in  the  same  field. 


CORN 


Uses  of  Corn.  —  Corn  is  used  chiefly  as  a  stock  food,  but 
in  recent  years  an  increasing  amount  is  used  as  a  human 
diet.  Many  of  the  breakfast  foods  are  made  from  corn. 


Fig.  10.  —  Samples  of  various  kinds  of  corn  products. 

Fine  grades  of  oil,  sirup,  sugar,  and  starch  are  manufactured 
from  corn.  Large  amounts  of  corn  products  are  annually 
shipped  abroad.  Glucose  factories  use  annually  many 
million  bushels  of  corn  for  making  corn  products. 

Corn  Culture.  --The  seed  bed  for  corn  should  be  care- 
fully prepared  before  the  seed  is  planted.  It  is  better  to 
plow  clay  soil  in  the  fall  and  let  it  lie  in  the  rough  through 
the  winter.  The  frequent  freezing  and  thawing  of  the 
ground  allows  the  lumps  to  break  down  easily  and  the  land 
by  proper  cultivation  in  the  spring  can  be  put  into  good 
tilth.  If  clay  lands  are  plowed  in  the  spring,  they  should 
not  be  plowed  deeper  than  in  previous  years.  New  ground 
brought  to  the  surface  in  the  spring  is  detrimental  to  the 
corn  crop. 


CORN  CULTURE  25 

On  sandy  lands  and  on  river  bottoms,  subject  to  spring 
overflows,  it  is  preferable  to  plow  in  the  spring.  Which- 
ever practice  is  followed  the  fall-plowed  land  should  be 
disked  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  it  will  work  well,  and  the 
disk  followed  with  a  fine-tooth  harrow  at  weekly  intervals 
to  sprout  weed  seeds  and  to  retain  soil  moisture  by  stirring 
the  surface  to  prevent  the  loss  of  water  from  the  soil.  If 
this  is  not  done,  the  ground  will  dry  out  rapidly  and  the 
surface  soil  will  be  cool  as  long  as  rapid  evaporation  is 
going  on.  Land  becomes  mellow  if  worked  early  in  the 
spring,  and  retains  that  mellowness  throughout  the  season. 

If  land  is  plowed  in  the  spring,  it  should  be  dragged  the 
same  day  except  in  damp  weather,  when  it  can  wait  until 
the  next  day.  It  is  injurious  to  the  ground  to  let  it  bake 


Fig.  ii.  —  A  corn  planter. 


in  the  spring  after  the  furrow  is  turned,  for  when  it  is 
once  baked  it  cannot  be  brought  into  good  tilth  again  that 
year.  When  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall  it  should  lie  in  the 
rough  during  the  winter. 


26 


CORN 


Testing  the  Planter.  —  The  corn  should  be  run  through 
a  corn  grader  before  planting,  or  ears  having  the  same 
width  of  kernels  should  be  selected  before  shelling  so  that 
the  planter  can  handle  the  kernels  in  a  uniform  manner. 
The  planter  should  be  tested  in  order  to  secure  the  proper 
planter  plate  to  drop  the  desired  number  of  kernels  to  the 
hill.  In  the  Northern  States  the  aim  is  to  get  4  kernels 


Fig.  12.  —  Above,  two  types  of  planter  plates.     Below,  uniform  kernels  of  corn  at 
left ;  irregular  tipped  kernels  in  the  middle ;  irregular  butt  kernels  at  right. 


in  each  hill.  Farther  south  3  kernels  are  preferred.  If  3 
kernels  are  placed  in  a  hill,  and  the  hills  are  placed  3!  feet 
apart,  there  will  be  10,668  stalks  per  acre  if  each  kernel 
grows  and  produces  a  plant. 

The  butt  and  tip  kernels  should  be  rejected  from  the  ears 
as  they  are  not  regular  in  size  and  do  not  germinate  uni- 
formly. Corn  cannot  be  planted  evenly  if  the  butt  and 


CULTIVATION 


27 


tip  kernels  are  left  in  the  seed  corn.  Corn  is  planted  either 
by  drill  or  by  the  check-row  method.  On  mellow  land  there 
does  not  seem  to  be  much  difference  in  yield  by  each  method 
if  the  same  number  of  stalks  are  grown  per  acre,  but  on 
the  heavy  or  weedy  soils  the  check-row  system  is  preferable 
as  it  allows  cross  cultivation,  which  keeps  the  land  mellow 
and  kills  the  weeds 
close  to  the  hills. 
Corn  should  be 
planted  after  the 
ground  has  lost  its 
winter  chill  and  the 
chances  of  heavy 
frost  are  past.  The 
larger  portion  of  the 
corn  crop  of  the 
United  States  is 
planted  in  May  and 
harvested  in  Septem- 
ber and  October. 
Cultivation.  —  Im- 


Fig.   13.  —  First  cultivation  of  corn. 


mediately  after  planting,  a  fine-tooth  harrow  should  be  run 
over  the  ground  to  level  it  and  to  kill  additional  weeds. 
As  soon  as  the  corn  is  noticeably  above  the  ground  it 
should  be  cultivated  at  a  fairly  good  depth.  The  subse- 
quent cultivations  should  be  shallow,  as  the  roots  of  the 
corn  soon  push  out  to  the  center  of  the  row  and  will  be 
severely  injured  if  deep  cultivation  is  practiced.  Culti- 
vation should  be  continued  until  the  corn  shades  the  ground. 
If  subsequent  heavy  rains  occur,  it  is  often  good  practice 
to  go  through  the  corn  with  a  one-horse  cultivator  and 
break  up  the  crust  that  has  been  formed  by  the  rains. 


28 


CORN 


Harvesting.  —  Corn  may  be  cut  by  hand,  with  a  corn 
knife,  or  harvested  with  the  corn  binder.     The  binder  is  a 

machine  that  .binds 
the  cornstalks  as  it 
cuts  them,  thus  mak- 
ing the  crop  easy  to 
handle.  The  bundles 
are  shocked  and  later 
drawn  to  the  barn 
and  run  through  a 
shredder;  or  the  ear 
corn  is  husked  in 
the  field  and  drawn 
to  the  cribs  and  the 
stalks  stored  away  for  feed.  Cornstalks,  after  the  ear  corn 
has  been  removed,  are  called  stover.  If  used  for  feed  when 
the  ears  are  not  removed,  they  are  called  fodder  corn. 


Fig.  14.  —  Last  cultivation  of  corn. 


Fig.  15.  —  A  corn  harvester. 


In  some  sections  of  our  country  the  corn  is  merely  taken 
from  the  standing  stalk  and  the  stalks  are  left  in  the  field. 
Since  approximately  one  third  of  the  feeding  value  of  corn 


HARVESTING 


29 


is  in  the  stalk,  this  manner  of  harvesting  corn  should  be 
discouraged. 

Corn  is  often  cut,  shocked,  hauled  to  the  barn  when  needed, 
and  run  through  the  feed  cutter  so  as  to  put  it  in  convenient 
form  for  feeding.  In  other  instances  it  is  fed  whole  with 
ear  and  stalk.  One 
of  the  most  conven- 
ient ways  of  saving 
a  large  quantity  of 
forage  for  farm  stock 
is  in  the  form  of 
silage.  The  corn  is 
harvested  at  the  time 
when  the  kernels  are 
glazed  and  some  of 
the  lower  leaves  have 
turned  brown.  At 
this  particular  stage 
the  highest  feeding 
value  can  be  ob- 
tained from  the  corn. 

Silage  corn  is 
drawn  directly  from 
the  field  and  run 
through  the  feed 
cutter  set  to  cut  about  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  put  into 
the  silo  by  elevator  or  blower  and  firmly  packed  to  exclude 
air.  If  the  corn  is  somewhat  dry  when  run  into  the  silo, 
water  should  be  used  to  moisten  it. 

Silage  will  keep  for  a  year  or  more  and  is  greatly  relished 
by  all  farm  animals,  especially  dairy  cows.  Siloing  corn  is 
the  most  economical  way  of  putting  up  large  quantities  of 


Fig.  1 6.  —  Filling  a  silo. 


30  CORN 

feed.  Several  different  makes  of  silos  are  used,  all  of  which 
have  their  special  merits. 

Testing  Seed  Corn.  —  An  increased  yield  of  corn  can  be 
secured  by  testing  each  ear  before  planting,  and  rejecting 
those  ears  that  do  not  germinate  or  that  show  lack  of  vigor 
or  vitality.  It  is  not  a  difficult  task  to  test  each  ear  of 
seed  corn.  Fifteen  average  ears  of  corn  will  plant  one  acre, 
using  4  kernels  to  the  hill  and  placing  the  rows  3^  feet 
apart.  When  the  importance  of  testing  seed  corn  is  fully 
realized,  few  farmers  will  plant  corn  without  first  submit- 
ting it  to  the  test. 

Selecting  Ears  for  Testing.  —  Only  the  most  nearly 
perfect  seed  ears,  having  kernels  of  a  uniform  width,  should 
be  saved  for  seed.  These  should  be  selected  from  the  store- 
room and  laid  out  on  the  floors  or  on  tables  to  be  convenient 
for  making  the  test.  Care  should  be  taken  to  place  the 
ears  where  they  will  not  be  disturbed  during  the  test. 
The  ears  should  be  arranged  in  groups  of  ten,  so  as  to  cor- 
respond with  the  sections  in  the  seed  tester.  Each  individ- 
ual ear  of  each  section  should  be  "numbered.  At  least  4 
kernels,  sometimes  6,  are  taken  singly  from  different  parts 
of  each  ear  and  placed  directly  in  front  of  the  ear  from  which 
they  were  taken. 

Seed  Corn  Tester.  —  For  testing  large  quantities  of  seed 
the  common  square  box  tester  is  preferable.  For  a  limited 
number  of  ears  the  pie  plate  test,  in  which  moistened 
cloth  pads  or  blotters  are  used  between  plates,  is  reliable. 
Cotton  cloth  folded  into  several  layers  and  moistened 
makes  a  good  device  for  testing  small  quantities  of  seed 
corn.  Small  squares  in  which  to  put  the  kernels  from  the 
different  ears  should  be  indicated  on  the  cloth  and  the  cloth 
then  rolled  so  as  to  retain  the  moisture. 


SEED   CORN  TESTER 


Fig.  17.  —  A  seed  tester,  showing  that  most  of  the  grains  have  vigorous  sprouts,  that  a 
few  have  weak  sprouts,  and  that  some  have  not  germinated- 

A  suitable  box  for  making  germination  tests  can  be  made 
from  common  boards.  A  convenient  size  is  20  X  40  inches, 
and  6  inches  in  depth.  Sawdust  is  an  excellent  material 
to  use  as  a  germination  bed  but  it  should  first  be  put  in  a 
sack  and  boiled  in  water  in  order  to  kill  bacteria  and  molds. 
The  sawdust  should  be  placed  in  the  box  about  3  inches 
deep  and  should  be  kept  moist  but  not  wet. 

A  piece  of  good  muslin  upon  which  two-inch  squares  have 
been  marked  and  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  ears  to 
be  tested,  is  pulled  tightly  over  the  sawdust  and  tacked  se- 
curely to  the  sides  of  the  box.  The  kernels  of  corn  taken 
from  ear  No.  i  are  put  into  square  No.  i,  and  from  ear  No. 
2,  into  square  No.  2,  and  so  on  until  all  are  used.  A  mois- 
tened cloth  is  placed  over  the  kernels  and  a  muslin  sack 
about  two  inches  thick  partially  filled  with  sawdust  is 
placed  on  top  of  the  cloth. 


32  CORN 

The  tester  should  then  be  placed  where  it  will  be  held  at 
ordinary  room  temperature  or  a  little  warmer.  During  the 
day  the  sawdust  reaches  a  temperature  which  it  holds  dur- 
ing the  night.  Even  though  the  outside  temperature  drops 
several  degrees  that  of  the  germination  bed  will  be  fairly 
constant.  Usually  it  requires  from  five  to  six  days  to 
make  a  good  test.  If  at  the  end  of  three  days  the  pad  of 
sawdust  is  dry,  it  should  be  moistened  again. 

Checking  the  Results  of  Tests.  —  After  five  or  six  days 
have  elapsed  the  sawdust  pack  should  be  taken  off  and  the 
cloth  rolled  back,  care  being  taken  not  to  move  the  kernels 
out  of  their  respective  squares.  The  kernels  should  be 
inspected  first  to  note  if  any  have  absolutely  failed,  second, 
if  each  kernel  has  put  forth  both  root  and  growing  point, 
and  third,  the  vigor  or  vitality  shown  in  the  germination. 

All  ears  having  kernels  that  show  defective  germination 
should  be  moved  forward  on  the  table.  After  the  test  has 
been  thoroughly  checked  up,  all  the  ears  that  were  moved 
forward  are  rejected  and  the  others  used  as  seed.  Before 
shelling  the  seed,  the  butt  and  tip  kernels  are  removed  as 
these  lack  uniformity  in  size  and  shape  and  do  not  give 
uniform  germination.  If  the  butt  and  tip  kernels  are  used 
at  all,  they  should  be  planted  by  themselves. 

Curing  Seed  Corn.  —  One  of  the  factors  that  enter  into 
the  securing  of  higher  yields  of  corn  is  the  curing  of  the  ears. 
It  is  just  as  easy  to  cure  corn  in  a  proper  manner  as  it  is  to 
store  it  away  on  the  barn  floor  or  in  an  exposed  crib,  where 
it  will  mold  or  be  destroyed  by  rats  and  mice. 

The  following  points  should  be  observed  in  selecting  seed 
corn : 

i.  Seed  corn  should  be  allowed  to  mature  well  on  the 
stalk. 


CURING   SEED    CORN 


33 


2.  For  corn-breeding  work  the  ears  should  be  selected 
from  promising  plants,  which  should  be  marked  and  the 
ears  left  to  ripen. 

3.  Mark      only 
stalks  that  are  leafy, 
of  medium  size,  and 
carrying    one    good 
ear  to  the  plant. 

4.  Select    only 
well-formed  ears. 

The  common  prac- 
tice of  selecting  the 
earliest  maturing 
ears  and  picking 
them  from  the  stalk 
as  soon  as  the  husks 
begin  to  turn  yellow 
secures  earliness  at 
the  expense  of  vital- 
ity. A  slight  frost 
will  not  injure  corn 
if  it  is  well  matured, 
and  it  is  better  to 
run  the  risk  of  frost  than  to  pick  the  ears  too  early.  The 
latter  part  of  the  growing  season  seems  to  improve  greatly 
the  vitality  of  the  corn. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  the  picking  of  seed  to  secure  ears 
that  are  attached  to  the  stalk  about  3  or  4  feet  above  the 
ground.  The  ears  that  grow  either  very  high  or  very  low 
upon  the  stalk  should  be  rejected  as  undesirable.  For  the 
same  reason  we  should  avoid  selecting  ears  with  very  short 
or  very  long  shanks  and  also  those  from  deformed  stalks. 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD.  —  3 


Fig.  1 8.  —  Selecting  seed  ears  from  desirable  plants. 


34  CORN 

Select  the  well-formed  ears  after  the  husks  have  turned 
yellow.  It  is  well  to  follow  definite  rows  in  securing  seed 
corn,  otherwise  large  numbers  of  good  ears  are  missed. 
If  the  corn  plants  have  been  studied  at  a  time  when  the 
corn  is  in  the  milk,  the  desirable  stalks  marked,  and  the 
ears  selected  from  these  marked  stalks  after  ripening,  a 
higher  grade  of  seed  corn  can  be  secured  than  by  general 
selection.  After  the  corn  is  husked,  many  ears  will  be 
found  imperfect  and  should  be  discarded.  Seed  corn 
should  be  put  into  the  proper  place  for  curing  on  the  same 
day  it  is  taken  from  the  field. 

When  taken  from  the  stalk,  corn  usually  contains  from 
20  to  30  per  cent  of  moisture,  which,  unless  reduced  to  10 
or  12  per  cent,  is  likely  to  injure  the  quality  of  the  seed. 

If  the  corn  is  cured  by  hanging  under  a  porch  or  under  the 
roof  of  a  corncrib,  it  should  be  stored  away  in  a  dry  room, 
where  it  will  not  absorb  moisture  from  the  outside  atmos- 
phere before  hard  freezing  weather  sets  in.  Germination 
tests  have  shown  that  where  corn  was  kept  in  a  dry  room 
or  attic  or  was  fire-dried  it  gave  a  germination  test  of  98 
to  100  per  cent,  but  where  left  shocked  in  the  field  or  on  the 
standing  stalk  throughout  the  winter,  it  completely  failed 
to  germinate. 

Corn  should  never  be  placed  against  the  south  side  of  a 
building  in  the  strong  sunlight,  as  the  rays  of  the  sun  will 
soon  injure  the  vitality  of  the  seed  on  the  side  of  the  ear 
turned  toward  the  sun. 

During  exceptional  years  when  the  corn  matures  well 
in  the  fall  before  cold  weather  sets  in,  it  will  withstand 
freezing  and  retain  its  vitality  on  the  stalks  or  in  open 
cribs  fairly  well,  but  in  most  years  the  vitality  of  the  corn 
will  be  materially  reduced  and  the  germination  will  be 


CURING   SEED   CORN  35 

exceedingly  low  at  the  time  of  planting,  if  left  exposed  to 
the  weather. 

In  the  Northern  States  where   the   seasons    are  short, 
the  most  convenient  way  of  ridding  the  corn  of  excessive 


Fig.  19.  —  Curing  seed  corn  with  artificial  heat.     Note  the  various  arrangements  of 
the  ears  of  corn. 

moisture  is  by  the  use  of  artificial  heat.  This  method 
is  known  as  curing,  kiln-drying,  or  fire-drying  and  may  be 
done  as  described  below.  By  thoroughly  kiln-drying 
seed  and  properly  storing  it  thereafter,  the  corn  yield 
can  be  materially  increased  over  that  which  could  be 
secured  from  seed  not  subjected  to  this  drying  process. 

Where  kitchen  or  furnace  room  can  be  used  for  curing 
corn,  simple  devices  may  be  used  for  holding  the  corn.  A 
practical  method  is  to  tie  the  ears  so  they  are  a  safe  distance 
apart  for  drying.  Another  method  is  to  use  double  cord, 
placing  ears  between  them  so  that  they  can  be  held 
securely  and  hung  on  a  nail  or  hook  by  the  loop.  Two 


CORN" 


persons  can  conveniently  put  up  a  large  quantity  of  corn 
in  a  short  time  by  the  use  of  the  double  cord.  One  person 
holds  the  cord  while  the  other  places  the  ears  in  position 
as  shown  in  Fig.  20. 

Small  movable  racks  are  often  used  in  which  sufficient 
corn  to  plant  five-  or  six  acres  can  be  placed  and  the  racks 

put  up  in  the  house 
until  the  corn  is  well 
dried.  Another  device  is 
the  "  corn  tree,"  shown 
at  the  right  of  Fig.  19, 
which  is  convenient  for 
curing  small  quantities 
of  seed  corn.  Often  this 
device  can  be  placed  in 
a  doorway  or  window 
where  there  is  a  strong 
current  of  air  to  help 
carry  off  moisture .  Such 
a  tree  6  feet  high  will 
hold  enough  corn  to 
plant  15  acres. 

Boards  fastened  to- 
gether in  panels  and 
finishing  nails  driven  in 
on  both  sides  at  the 


Fig.  20.  —  Method  of  arranging  corn  in  the 
double  cord  hanger.  One  person  holds  the 
cord  while  another  places  the  ears  in  position. 


proper  distance  apart  so 
that  the  ears  will  not 
touch  make  a  good  corn-curing  device.  By  having  the 
panels  fastened  about  two  feet  apart  at  top  and  bottom  a 
large  quantity  of  corn  can  be  stored  conveniently  and  in 
such  a  way  as  to  permit  free  circulation  of  air. 


EXERCISES  37 

A  ventilated  attic  that  has  a  chimney  passing  through 
it  or  is  located  directly  over  a  heated  room  so  that  it  can  be 
kept  at  a  fairly  uniform  temperature  through  the  winter  is 
a  very  good  place  to  cure  corn.  The  attic  is  usually  the 
driest  portion  of  the  house  and  if  corn  is  stored  in  it  in 
racks  or  hanging  devices  in  the  early  fall,  it  will  cure  excep- 
tionally well.  During  the  warm  fall  weather  the  attic  is 
usually  heated  by  the  rays  of  sun  on  the  roof  to  a  fairly  high 
temperature  and  the  effect  upon  the  corn  is  the  same  as  that 
of  fire-drying,  provided  the  quantity  of  corn  is  limited.  If 
a  large  quantity  is  to  be  dried  within  the  attic,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  set  up  a  small  stove  and  have  plenty  of  ventila- 
tion in  order  to  cure  it  in  the  best  manner. 

Underneath  the  roof  of  the  corncrib  is  a  good  place  to 
cure  corn  during  the  early  fall.  It  should  be  hung  where 
there  is  a  strong  circulation  of  air  through  the  crib.  After 
corn  has  hung  there  for  four  or  five  weeks,  it  can  be  taken 
out  and  put  into  an  attic  or  a  dry  room  to  be  kept  through 
the  winter. 

EXERCISES 

1.  If  planting  corn  in  accordance  with  the  check-row  system, 
placing  the  hills  3^  feet  apart  and  dropping  3  kernels  to  the  hill 
gives  10,668  plants  per  acre,  how  many  bushels  of  corn  can  be 
grown  on  1 20  acres  if  the  corn  after  husking  weighs  one  pound 
per  ear  and  each  plant  produces  one  good  ear  ?     Estimate  corn 
from  the  field  at  80  pounds  per  bushel. 

2.  If  the  corn  was  fire-dried  and  the  weight  reduced  15  per 
cent  by  driving  off  moisture,  how  many  bushels  would  there 
be,  considering  the  weight  of  fire-dried  corn  in  the  ear  at  70 
pounds  per  bushel? 

3.  If  |  of  the  corn  is  found  to  be  sufficiently  good  to  sell  for 
seed  corn  at  $2.50  per  bushel,  and  the  remainder  is  sold  at 


38  CORN 

$1.20  per  bushel,  how  much  money  will  be  received  for  the 
corn? 

4.  If  the  above  field  was  planted  to  a  select  variety  of  high- 
bred corn  that  gave  10  bushels  more  corn  per  acre  after  fire- 
drying  and  this  corn  was  found  to  run  |  seed  ears,  which  sold 
at  $3.50  per  bushel  and  the  remainder  at  $  1.25  per  bushel,  how 
much  more  would  be  realized  by  growing  the  select  variety  of 
corn? 

5.  How  much  will  it  cost  for  seed  to  plant  a  4o-acre  field, 
the  seed  being  worth  $3.75  per  bushel  of  100  ears,  if  18  ears 
are  needed  to  plant  one  acre? 

6.  How   many   gallons   of  water   would   there  be   in    2000 
bushels  of  cribbed   corn,  providing  it    contained   20  per  cent 
moisture?     Estimate  the  weight  of   corn   at    So   pounds  per 
bushel  and  water  at  one  pound  per  pint. 

7.  A   bin    12'  X  12'  X  10'  will  hold  how  many  bushels  of 
shelled  corn?     A  bushel  equals  2150.4  cubic  inches. 

HOME   PROJECTS 

i.  In  the  fall  select  seed  corn  from  foundation  field  for  corn 
improvement.  Go  into  the  field  when  the  corn  has  reached 
the  milk  stage  and  the  plant  shows  its  characteristics  to  best 
advantage.  A  study  of  the  corn  plant  at  this  time  by  individual 
rows  will  aid  materially  in  getting  good  foundation  stock. 

Select  a  plant  having  numerous  leaves  and  one  good  ear  that 
is  attached  with  medium  shank  to  the  stalk.  The  ear  should 
be  attached  between  3  and  4  feet  from  the  ground,  and  the 
plant  should  look  strong  and  vigorous. 

A  red  string  or  some  other  mark  should  be  attached  to  the 
plant  so  that  it  will  be  readily  recognized  after  ripening.  At 
least  200  corn  plants  that  closely  resemble  each  other  should 
be  marked.  After  the  field  of  corn  has  ripened  fully  pick  the 
ears  from  the  marked  stalks  and  husk  them  on  the  same  day  that 
the  corn  is  picked. 


HOME   PROJECTS  39 

Discard  50  ears  that  are  inferior  and  fire-dry  the  remainder 
for  seed.  After  fire-drying  make  germination  test  and  discard 
50  more  ears  if  necessary  that  are  not  strong  and  vigorous  in 
germination.  Save  at  least  100  ears  for  u  ear-to-the-row  "  test 
the  following  spring. 

2.  In  early  spring  begin  work  on  corn  improvement  by  the 
ear-to-the-row  method.  Shell  off  butts  and  tips  and  save  the 


Fig.  21.  —Results  of  the  ear-to-the-row  method  of  corn  breeding.  Yields  of  good 
seed  corn  from  rows  planted  with  seed  from  different  ears.  Crate  on  left  has  19 
pounds  of  seed  corn ;  crate  on  right  has  62  pounds  of  seed  corn. 

corn  on  the  middle  portion  of  the  ears  for  planting.  Select  a 
field  where  the  soil  conditions  and  rotation  of  crops  are  uniform. 
Place  hills  3^  feet  apart  each  way.  Have  the  same  number  of 
hills  in  each  row  and  place  3. kernels  in  each  hill.  Use  only 
about  two  thirds  of  the  kernels  on  each  ear.  After  ripening, 
harvest  each  row  separately  and  divide  into  seed  ears,  crib 
corn,  and  nubbins. 

Save  the  seed  corn  for  field  work  from  those  rows  that  through- 
out the  growing  period  showed  uniformity  of  plant  growth  and 
that  gave  the  largest  amount  of  good  quality  of  seed  ears. 
The  seed  from  three  or  four  of  the  best  rows  in  the  hundred-row 
test  should  be  saved  for  seed. 


40  CORN 

3.  Detassel  corn  to  prevent  self-fertilization.  Go  into  the 
ear-to-the-row  test  field  just  at  the  time  when  the  tassels  are 
beginning  to  show.  If  the  sheath  which  incloses  the  tassel  is 
pinched  several  inches  beneath  the  top  of  the  tassel,  we  can 
readily  remove  the  tassel  from  the  plant  by  pulling  it  out. 
Every  alternate  row  is  treated  in  this  way  so  that  one  half  of 
the  rows  in  the  test  will  be  detasseled  and  the  other  half  will 
bear  tassels.  The  tassel-bearing  plants  will  fertilize  the  silks 
on  the  detasseled  plants,  and  also  those  on  the  tasseled  plants. 
The  seed  should  be  retained  from  the  detasseled  plants  upon 
which  a  cross  has  been  forced.  If  any  inferior  or  barren  plants 
are  found  in  the  tasseled  row,  pull  them  up  or  detassel. 


CHAPTER   III 

CORN   AND    GRAIN   JUDGING 

JUDGING  CORN 

Judging  the  Basis  of  Corn  Improvement.  —  For  many 
years  the  score  card  has  been  used  in  judging  live  stock, 
butter,  and  cheese ;  but  not  until  recently  has  it  come  into 
general  use  as  an  aid  in  judging  corn  and  other  grains. 
Experience  has  shown,  that  while  the  judging  of  corn  by 
the  score  card  is  not  a  definite  science,  it  gives  the  farmer 
and  the  student  the  best  opportunity  for  estimating  the 
value  of  an  ear  of  corn.  By  carefully  studying  the  different 
points  under  which  corn  is  judged,  and  carefully  noting 
the  defects  of  each  ear,  one  will  soon  become  so  proficient 
that  he  can  select  good  seed  corn,  or  act  as  judge  satisfac- 
torily in  corn  contests. 

Corn  may  be  improved  by  the  farmer  in  two  ways:  by 
the  selection  of  the  best  ears  for  seed  from  the  best  stalks 
in  the  field,  or  by  selecting  the  best  ears  from  the  best  row  in 
a  field,  each  row  of  which  has  been  planted  with  seed  from 
a  single  good  ear.  Such  selection  of  seed  is  a  simple  method 
of  corn  improvement  and  can  be  practiced  by  any  farmer. 

To  improve  corn  by  seed  selection  it  is  necessary  to  know 
what  kind  of  ears  to  choose  for  seed.  For  this  purpose  a 
list  of  the  most  important  points  has  been  prepared  on  a 
sheet  known  as  a  score  card.  Each  ear  is  examined  and 
compared  with  the  standard.  The  score  card  shown  in  this 

41 


42  CORN  AND    GRAIN   JUDGING 

book  has  been  prepared  for  a  perfect  ear  of  dent  corn.  In 
scoring,  a  cut  is  made  in  each  point  in  which  the  ear  being 
scored  is  inferior  to  the  standard. 

Before  corn  can  be  accurately  judged,  the  one  who  scores 
the  corn  must  have  a  mental  picture  of  the  perfect  ear.  By 
examination  of  good  specimens,  this  ideal  can  be  readily 
fixed  in  the  mind,  and  in  judging  other  ears  the  extent  to 
which  they  fail  to  equal  the  ideal  can  be  indicated  on  the 
score  card.  To  understand  best  the  various  points  of  the 
score  card  they  must  be  studied  separately,  in  the  order 
presented  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

A  sample  of  corn  for  judging  or  exhibition  purposes  should 
consist  of  ten  ears  of  any  variety.  This  number  furnishes 


Fig.  22.  —  Ten  uniform  ears  of  corn.     The  kernels  and  ears  are  uniform  in  size,  color, 
and  general  appearance. 

an  easy  basis  for  calculating  the  cuts  for  various  defects, 
and  a  sufficient  number  of  ears  for  a  fair  sample. 

Arranging  the  Sample.  —  Arrange  the  ears  in  the  sample 
so  that  the  one  considered  as  the  best  ear  is  on  the  left, 
the  next  best  second,  and  so  on,  the  poorest  ear  being  the 
last  on  the  right.  Also  keep  uniformity  in  mind.  Have 
ears  of  nearly  the  same  size  together.  Do  not  have  a  short 


SCORING   CORN 


43 


ear  and  a  long  one  side  by  side.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary 
to  put  an  ear  out  of  its  place  in  the  order  of  excellence  to 
preserve  uniformity  in  the  sample. 

WISCONSIN   OFFICIAL   CORN   SCORE   CARD 


PERFECT 
SCORE 

SCORE  OF 
SAMPLE 

i  .    Trueness  to  type  or  breed  characteristics 

10 

6 

0 

2.    Shape  of  ear     

10 

6 

5 

3.    Color  :  a.  Grain 

5 

3' 

8 

6.   Cob 

5 

3 

7 

4.    Market  condition      

10 

/ 

5 

5.   Tips    

5 

3 

5 

6.    Butts 

5 

2 

5 

7.    Kernels  :  a.  Uniformity  of      

10 

5 

7    . 

0 

b.  Shape  of 

3 

/ 

8.   Length  of  ear 

10 

[    I 

8 

9.    Circumference  of  ear      

5 

3 

5 

10.    Space  :  a.  Furrow  between  rows      .... 

5 

3 

0 

b.  Space  between  kernels  at  cob       .             5 

3 

5 

ii.   Percentage  of  corn   

TO 

7 

5 

Total        

IOO 

i  69 

5 

Cuts  for  general  defects       

!       5 

0 

Final  score 

64 

5 

NAME 

SAMPLE  No. 


How  the  Sample  is  Scored.  —  After  the  sample  is  ar- 
ranged, each  ear  is  scored  for  the  various  points  in  order. 


44  CORN  AND   GRAIN  JUDGING 

The  following  example,  showing  how  a  sample  is  scored  for 
trueness  to  type,  will  serve  as  an  illustration. 

In  judging  trueness  to  type,  a  general  study  of  the  ear  is 
made.  Under  this  head  the  ear  is  criticized  only  from  the 
general  standpoint  of  type  factors,  and  no  numerical  score 
is  given  for  other  points  in  which  the  ear  is  deficient.  Sup- 
pose ear  No.  i  has  the  shape,  size,  and  color  of  the  breed  of 
corn  it  represents  but  is  not  quite  perfect.  The  color  of 
grain  may  be  slightly  off,  a  few  kernels  may  be  off  type,  or 
the  shape  may  not  conform  to.the  breed.  This  ear  is  not 
quite  perfect  from  the  standpoint  of  trueness  to  type.  It 
may  be  cut  .2  point  under  that  head. 

Ear  No.  2  is  a  fairly  good  ear,  but  has  a  few  more  defects 
than  ear  No.  i.  On  the  points  under  consideration  it  is 
poorer  than  ear  No.  i  and  would  be  cut  .3  of  a  point. 

The  same  method  is  followed  with  all  the  ears.  Each 
ear  is  criticized  and  a  general  cut  is  made.  Then  the 
sum  of  all  the  cuts  is  deducted  from  the  total  ten  points 
for  a  perfect  score,  and  the  remainder  is  the  rating  given 
the  sample  on  trueness  to  type.  For  example  suppose 
that  our  cuts  on  the  ten  ears  are  as  follows : 

Ear  No.    i 2 

Ear  No.    2 3 

Ear  No.    3 4 

Ear  No.    4 25 

Ear  No.    5 35 

Ear  No.    6 2 

Ear  No.    7 25 

Ear  No.    8 15 

Ear  No.    9 5 

Ear  No.  10 .4 

Total  3.00 

The  3  points  are  deducted  from  the  perfect  score  of  10, 
leaving  7  points  as  the  score  for  trueness  to  type. 
The  same  method  of  cutting  is  used  on  all  points  except 


SCORING   CORN  45 

the  percentage  of  corn  to  cob,  and  the  length  and  the  cir- 
cumference of  ear,  which  are  determined  by  actual  weight 
and  measurement. 

After  the  student  has  had  several  exercises  on  scoring 
single  ears  in  a  sample  he  is  then  required  to  score  the 
sample  as  a  whole,  using  the  ten  ears  as  a  unit.  He  will 
make  cuts  on  the  entire  sample  of  ten  ears  similar  to  the 
method  employed  with  the  single  ear.  Instead  of  adding 
the  exact  score  of  the  ten  ears  separately  under  the  various 
heads,  as  given  in  the  illustration,  he  scans  the  entire  ten 
ears  closely  and  puts  down  his  estimated  score  for  the  whole 
ten  ears.  By  the  use  of  the  decimal  notation,  instead  of 
common  fractions,  the  method  is  very  much  simplified. 

Suppose  that  a  student,  judging  a  sample  for  trueness  to 
type,  finds  sufficient  defects  to  cut  four  points,  he  then 
deducts  this  from  the  perfect  score,  and  enters  the  number, 
6,  in  the  proper  column  on  the  score  card.  He  then  con- 
tinues the  examination  of  the  sample  under  the  various 
headings,  and  enters  the  score  on  each  point  as  indicated 
on  the  score  card. 

Adding  the  score  under  each  head  gives  the  total  score  of 
the  sample.  If  the  sample  shows  a  pronounced  general 
weakness,  points  should  now  be  deducted  for  general 
defects,  as  explained  later.  In  the  score  card  on  page 
42  the  total  score  is  69.5.  The  sample  is  cut  5  points 
for  general  defects,  and  the  final  score  is  64.5. 

POINTS   UNDER  WHICH   CORN  IS   SCORED 

Below  are  discussed  each  of  the  separate  points  under 
which  corn  is  scored,  the  perfect  score  for  the  point  under 
consideration  is  stated,  and  directions  for  judging  and  rules 
for  scoring  are  given. 


46         CORN  AND  GRAIN  JUDGING 

TRUENESS  TO  TYPE  OR  BREED 

Perfect  Score.  —  The  corn  should  conform  to  the  stand- 
ard for  the  type  and  breed  in  form  of  kernel,  shape  of  ear, 
indentation,  and  color  of  grain.  Perfect  score,  10  points. 

Directions  for  Judging.  -The  first  point  in  judging  a 
sample  of  corn  is  to  determine  its  trueness  to  the  type 
or  breed  characteristics.  There  are  breeds  of  corn,  like 
breeds  of  cattle,  having  peculiar  colors  or  forms  which 
distinguish  them ;  as,  for  example,  the  Silver  King  is  a 
white  variety  and  the  Golden  Glow  a  yellow  variety.  It  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  breeds  of  the  same  color, 
but  this  may  be  learned  by  experience  in  handling  corn  of 
different  breeds.  In  pure  corn  of  any  breed  there  are 
certain  marks  which  can  be  easily  recognized. 

Rule  for  Scoring.  —  Deduct  one  point  for  each  ear  which 
differs  radically  from  the  type,  and  less  for  each  ear  that  is 
partially  off  type. 

SHAPE   OF   EAR 

Perfect  Score.  —  The  ideal  ear  is  cylindrical,  conforming 
to  the  standard  for  the  variety,  not  crooked  nor  tapering. 
Perfect  score,  10  points. 

Directions  for  Judging.  —  It  is  as  difficult  to  find  an  ear 
of  corn  perfect  in  shape  as  it  is  to  find  cows,  horses,  and 
sheep  with  perfect  forms.  The  shapes  of  ears  of  the  different 
varieties  of  corn  differ  as  widely  as  the  shape  and  form  of 
the  different  pure  breeds  of  cattle.  Each  class  and  variety 
has  a  characteristic  shape  peculiar  to  itself.  For  example, 
Silver  King  corn  has  an  ear  of  medium  length,  large  in 
circumference  ;  while  the  Golden  Glow  has  an  ear  consider- 
ably shorter  and  finer  in  cob  and  general  conformation. 

The  most  desirable  shape  ear  is  cylindrical  from  butt  to 


COLOR    OF    GRAIX    AND    COB 


47 


tip.  Where  ears  are  inclined  to  taper,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
two  or  four  rows,  as  a  rule,  are  dropped  near  the  middle  of 
the  ear.  In  scoring 
corn,  take  into  con- 
sideration the  soil 
and  climatic  condi- 
tions in  which  the 
corn  was  grown . 
The  shape  of  a  de- 
sirable ear  for  cen- 
tral Illinois  differs  in 
many  respects  from 
the  shape  most  de- 
sirable for  Wiscon- 

Fig.  23.  —  Ears  of  desirable  and  undesirable  shape. 
The  ear  at  the  left  is  too  short  and  thick,  although 
good  in  other  respects ;  the  second  is  desirable ;  the 
third  has  an  enlarged  butt  and  irregular  rows ;  the 
fourth,  at  the  right,  is  too  slender. 


i« 


m-r^xrinrY 
growing 

Wisconsin  demands 


a  shallower  kernel  and  a  smaller  ear  to  enable  the  corn  to 
mature  in  a  short  season. 

Rule  for  Scoring.  —  No  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  exact 
number  of  points  to  be  cut  on  account  of  defects  in  shape. 
In  general,  cut  one  point  for  each  poorly  shaped  ear. 

COLOR   OF   GRAIN  AND   COB 

Perfect  Score.  —  The  color  of  the  grain  should  be  uni- 
form and  true  to  the  color  standard  for  the  variety,  free 
from  missing  or  discolored  kernels.  Perfect  score,  5  points. 
The  color  of  the  cob  should  be  a  bright  cherry  red  for 
yellow  corn  and  glistening  white  for  white  corn.  Perfect 
score,  5  points. 

Directions  for  Judging.  —  The  color  of  the  corn  varies 
with  the  breed.  The  Silver  King  corn  has  a  cream  color, 


48 


CORN  AND   GRAIN  JUDGING 


while  the  Boone  County  White  has  a  pearly  white  color. 
These  shades  have  become  characteristic  of  the  breeds. 
Yellow  breeds  vary  slightly  in  color  from  a  pale  yellow  to  a 
deep  orange,  and  the  correct  color  can  only  be  known  by  a 
thorough  acquaintance  with  the  variety. 

If  the  cobs  vary  from  the  standard,  a  cut  should  be  made 
by  the  scorer.  A  bright  cherry  red  denotes  health  and 
vigor  in  corn  and  a  pale  or  dark  red  cob  denotes  lack  of 
constitution  or  vitality.  The  white  corn  cobs  should  be  a 
glistening  white  and  not  a  pale  dead  color. 

Some  farmers  prefer  to  grow  corn  of  a  certain  color. 
From  tests  made  by  breeders  of  corn,  and  by  experiment 
stations,  it  has  been  found  that  in  general,  color  makes  no 
difference  so  far  as  feeding  value  is  concerned.  Starting 
with  white  and  yellow  corn  of  equal  merit,  careful  breeding 
of  one  variety  and  neglect  of  the  other  would  soon  produce 

a  marked  difference 
in  the  yield  and 
quality  in  favor  of 
the  variety  to  which 
the  best  attention 
had  been  given, 
regardless  of  the 
color.  Like  the 
breeder  of  live  stock, 
the  corn  grower 
should  select  that 
breed  of  corn  which 
suits  his  taste  best, 
keeping  in  mind 
that  the  quantity  and  quality  of  marketable  corn  per  acre 
are  the  essential  characteristics  sought  for. 


Fig.  24.  —  Desirable  and  undesirable  cobs.  The  yel- 
low corn  with  a  red  cob,  at  the  left,  is  desirable ;  the 
second,  yellow  corn  with  a  white  cob,  should  be 
scored  off  sharply;  the  third,  white  corn  with  a 
white  cob,  is  ideal ;  the  fourth,  white  corn  with  a  red 
cob,  denotes  mixture. 


MARKET    CONDITION 


49 


Rule  for  Scoring.  —  For  each  mixed  kernel  on  an  ear  a 
cut  of  .1  of  a  point  should  be  made  to  the  extent  of  .5  of  a 
point  for  the  ear.  Kernels  missing  from  the  ear  are  counted 
as  mixed.  Difference  in  shade  or  color,  as  light  or  dark 
red,  white  or  cream  color,  must  be  scored  according  to 
variety  characteristics.  A  white  cob  with  yellow  corn,  or 
a  red  cob  with  white  corn,  should  be  cut  .5  of  a  point. 

MARKET   CONDITION 

Perfect  Score.  —  Corn  should  be  ripe,  sound,  free  from 
injuries  or  disease,  and  bright  in  color.  Perfect  score,  10 
points. 

Directions  for  Judging.  —  By  market  condition  we  mean 
general  excellence  and  the  degree  of  ripeness  or  maturity. 

Corn  that  shows  a  tend-     

ency  to  be  loose  on  the 
cob  with  wide  spaces 
between  the  kernels 
should  be  scored  off 
heavily.  Where  market 
condition  is  perfect  or 
nearly  so,  the  kernels 
are  firm  on  the  cob, 
they  fit  closely  together 
on  the  cob  and  in  the 
row,  and  the  ear  gives 
a  rasping  sound  when 
twisted. 

When  corn  is  scored 
from  the  feeder's  standpoint  it  is  not  cut  so  severely  as 
from  the  grower's  or  seedsman's  standpoint. 

No  other  head  under  which  corn  is  judged  is  so  important 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PRQD. 4 


Fig.  25.  —  Ears  showing  poor  market  conditions. 
The  ear  at  the  left  is  moldy  and  soft;  the 
middle  ear  is  immature,  loose  on  the  cob,  and 
badly  shelled  off;  the  third  is  mouse  eaten. 


50  CORN  AND   GRAIN  JUDGING 

to  farmers  as  market  condition,  and  all  farmers  should  be 
able  to  judge  corn  for  the  perfection  of  that  characteristic. 
The  utmost  importance  is  attached  to  market  condition 
in  carrying  on  variety  tests,  as  a  variety  of  corn  is  of  little 
value  to  a  community,  if  it  does  not  properly  mature  within 
the  growing  season.  However,  corn  will  gradually  adjust 
itself  to  varying  conditions  of  soil  and  climate ;  and  the 
earliness  of  corn  can  be  improved  materially  by  selecting 
those  ears  for  seed  that  show  good  market  condition,  even 
if  there  are  but  few  in  the  entire  field. 

Rule  for  Scoring.  —  Cut  up  to  one  point  for  every  dis- 
eased, chaffy,  injured,  or  immature  ear. 

TIPS   AND   BUTTS 

Perfect  Score.  —  (a)  TIPS.  The  kernels  should  extend 
over  the  tip  in  regular  rows,  and  be  uniform  in  size  and 
shape.  Perfect  score,  5  points,  (b)  BUTTS.  The  kernels 
should  extend  over  the  butt  in  regular  rows  and  be  well 
developed  and  uniform.  Perfect  score,  5  points. 

Directions  for  Judging.  —  A  perfect  tip  has  a  central 
kernel  called  the  cap,  which  is  completely  surrounded  with 
uniform  kernels.  A  perfect  tip  is  rarely  found,  but  those 
which  come  nearest  to  the  ideal  should  be  chosen,  providing 
it  is  not  at  the  expense  of  other  more  important  factors. 
The  tip  kernels  are  likely  to  be  flinty  and  of  a  pop-corn 
shape,  which  is  undesirable  in  dent  corn.  If  bare  tips  are 
noticeable  generally  throughout  the  field,  it  may  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  silks  representing  the  tip  kernels  which 
were  formed  last  were  too  late  to  receive  the  pollen  for 
their  proper  fertilization.  If  ears  having  defective  tips  or 
butts  are  used  for  seed,  their  undesirable  characters  will 
soon  become  permanent.  Open  tips  usually  accompany 


TIPS    AND    BUTTS  51 

shallow  and  irregular  kernels  on  the  ear,  which  makes  the 

kernels  on  that  part  of  the  ear  undesirable  for  planting. 

In  judging  the  character  of  the  butt  of  an  ear  of  corn,  the 

way  in  which  the  rows  come  over  towards  the  shank  is 


Fig.  26.  —  Desirable  and  undesirable  tips.  The  three  tios,  beginning  at  the  left,  are 
undesirable ;  the  one  at  the  right  is  almost  perfect.  The  first  one  at  the  left  has  a 
bare  cob ;  the  second  is  double  tipped ;  and  the  third  is  too  pointed. 

important.  If  the  corn  comes  in  too  close,  it  reduces  the 
size  of  the  shank  where  it  is  attached  to  the  ear,  and  causes 
the  ears  to  drop  off  during  the  ripening  period.  Corn 
breeders  in  desiring  to  get  a  large  proportion  of  corn  to  the 
cob,  often  choose  ears  with  too  small  an  attachment  for 
the  shank.  All  ears  that  have  butts  improperly  rilled  should 
be  rejected.  The  butt  and  the  tip  kernels  are  rejected  for 
planting,  because  they  are  more  likely  to  be  mixed  with 
other  varieties,  and  since,  due  to  their  peculiar  round  forma- 


Fig.  27.  —  Butts  of  corn  ears  —  four  kinds.  The  one  at  the  left  is  well  formed,  the 
next  is  too  contracted ;  the  third  too  flat,  and  that  at  the  right  is  badly  formed  and 
poorly  filled  out. 

tion,  they  interfere  in  the  planting.  They  also  are  weaker 
in  germination  and  vary  more  in  growth  than  kernels  from 
the  middle  parts  of  the  ear. 

No  planter  plate  can  handle  butt  and  tip  kernels  so  as  to 


52  CORN  AND   GRAIN  JUDGING 

drop  a  uniform  number  of  kernels  per  hill.  As  is  shown 
in  the  illustration  on  page  26  both  the  round  hole  drop 
planter  plate  on  the  right  and  the  edge  drop  plate  on  the 
left  are  so  constructed  as  to  hold  one  middle  kernel  for  each 
hole  or  notch.  In  case  the  tip  and  butt  kernels  are  mixed 
with  the  middle  kernels,  it  is  possible,  as  shown  above,  for 
two  or  three  of  these  irregularly  shaped  tip  and  butt  kernels, 
or  for  a  large  middle  and  a  small  tip  kernel  to  fit  on  one 
hole  or  notch.  This  will  cause  irregularity  in  the  number 
of  kernels  planted  per  hill. 

Rule  for  Scoring.  —  The  tips  and  butts  that  do  not  meet 
the  standard  should  be  scored  severely.  Where  one  inch 
of  cob  is  exposed  at  the  tip  a  cut  of  one  point  should  be 
made.  Regularity  of  rows  near  the  tip  and  the  shape  and 
size  of  the  kernel  must  also  be  considered.  If  the  kernels 
on  the  butt  are  uniform  in  size  and  extend  around  it  in 
regular  order,  give  it  a  full  score.  Cut  in  proportion  as  the 
grain  is  small  or  compressed. 

KERNELS 

Perfect  Score.  —  (a)  UNIFORMITY.  The  kernels  should 
be  alike  in  size,  shape,  color,  and  true  to  the  type  or 
variety.  Perfect  score,  10  points,  (b)  SHAPE.  Kernels 
should  be  of  wedge  shape,  the  width  at  the  tip  depending 
on  the  variety  characteristics.  Perfect  score,  5  points. 

Directions  for  Judging.  --The  crown  or  big  end  of  the 
kernel  should  be  such  that  the  edges  of  the  kernels  slope 
from  tip  to  crown.  The  tip  of  the  kernel,  which  is  the 
part  attached  to  the  cob,  contains  the  larger  portion  of  the 
germ  and  is  rich  in  protein  and  oil,  and  consequently  of 
the  highest  feeding  value.  A  plump  tip  and  wide  germ 
usually  indicate  strong  vitality. 


KERNELS 


53 


Remove  two  typical  kernels  from  each  ear  and  place 
them  above  the  ear  to  which  they  belong.  These  kernels 
are  the  ones  compared  in  determining  shape  and  uniformity 
for  the  sample.  The  uniformity  and  shape  of  the  kernels 
on  the  individual  ear  are  also  considered. 

Kernels  with  weak  or  shriveled  tips  should  be  discarded, 
no  matter  how  well  the  outside  of  the  ear  may  look.  At  least 


60  06  II 


Fig.  28.  —  Various  shapes  of  kernels.  To  judge  kernels  remove  two  kernels  from  each 
ear  two  thirds  of  the  way  from  butt  to  tip.  Place  each  pair  near  the  ear  from  which 
they  were  taken  and  compare  with  the  ideal.  The  top  row  here  shown  illustrates 
the  best,  while  those  in  the  bottom  row  are  too  short  and  thick  for  dent  corn.  The 
long  wedge-shaped  kernels  shown  at  the  right  of  the  top  row  and  the  pair  in  the 
center  of  the  top  row  are  most  desirable. 

85  per  cent  of  the  oil  in  the  kernel  is  in  the  germ,  hence  corn 
with  well-formed  germs  is  desirable.  Tests  show  that  the 
oil  in  corn  may  vary  from  2.5  per  cent  to  7.5  per  cent  and 
the  protein  from  6.5  per  cent  to  16  per  cent.  If  seed  corn 
contains  a  large  amount  of  protein  and  oil,  the  crop  grown 
from  this  seed  will  be  high  in  these  desirable  features. 


54 


CORN   AND    GRAIN  JUDGING 


Rule  for  Scoring.  —  Cut  one  point  for  each  set  of  kernels 
which  are  not  uniform.  Cut  .5  of  a  point  for  each  set  of 
kernels  which  are  shriveled  or  poorly  formed. 

LENGTH  AND   CIRCUMFERENCE   OF   EAR 

Perfect  Score.  —  (a)  LENGTH.  The  ear  should  be  up 
to  the  standard  for  the  section  in  which  the  corn  is  grown. 

Perfect  score,  10 
points.  (6)  CIRCUM- 
FERENCE. In  cir- 
cumference the  ear 
should  be  up  to  the 
standard  for  the  sec- 
tion in  which  the 
crop  is  grown.  Per- 
fect score,  5  points. 
Directions  for 
Judging.  — Standard 
measurements  for 
corn  vary  with  the 
locality  in  which  it 
is  grown.  Long  ears 
are  objectionable 
because  they  usually 
have  poor  butts  and 
tips,  and  shallow  kernels,  and  hence  a  low  per  cent  of  grain 
to  the  ear  In  general  the  circumference  should  be  three 
fourths  of  the  length. 

The  chief  reason  for  distinct  measurements  is  to  secure 
uniformity  and  compactness  in  ears.  In  scoring  one  must 
not  accept  ears  that  are  out  of  the  natural  proportion,  but 
must  be  governed  by  some  uniform  standard.  In  some  of 


Fig.  29.  —  Relation  of  length  of  ear  to  circumference. 
The  ear  at  the  left  is  too  short  and  thick ;  that  at 
the  right  is  too  long  and  slender ;  the  middle  ear  has 
the  correct  proportion  of  length  to  circumference. 


LENGTH  AND   CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  EAR 


55 


the  older  corn-breeding  states,  each  distinct  variety  of  corn 
has  its  respective  measurements  as  to  length  and  circum- 
ference. 

Rule  for  Scoring.  —  Add  the  deficiency  and  excess  in 
inches  of  all  ears  not  conforming  to  the  standard,  and  for 
every  inch  thus  obtained  cut  one  point.  Likewise  add  the 
deficiency  and  excess  in  circumference  in  inches  of  all  ears 
not  like  the  standard,  and  cut  .5  of  a  point  for  every 
inch  thus  obtained.  Suppose  the  length  and  circumfer- 
ence of  the  ten  ears,  compared  with  the  standard  for  the 
variety,  is  as  follows,  the  plus  sign  indicating  that  the  ear 
has  greater  length  or  circumference  than  the  standard. 


EXCESS  OR 

DEFICIENCY 

EAR  NUMBER 

In  Length 
Inches 

In  Circumference 
Inches 

I 

-1-  o  ?O 

+  O2^ 

2 

+  O  7S 

+  O  ?O 

2 

+  O  <?O 

O  OO 

4         

O  OO 

-f-  o  10 

5         

o.oo 

O  OO 

6        

—  O  IO 

O  OO 

7         

—  O  IO 

—  O  IO 

8         

—  O  2<? 

—  o  20 

9         

—  O  2$ 

—  O  TO 

10         

~  0.50 

-  0.25 

2-95 

1.50 

Therefore,  cut  the  sample  2.95  points  for  length  and 
.75  of  a  point  for  circumference. 

SPACES  BETWEEN   ROWS  AND   KERNELS 

Perfect  Score.  —  (a)  FURROWS  BETWEEN  ROWS.  The 
furrows  between  rows  should  be  straight,  with  uniform  space 
between  kernels  at  the  crowns.  Perfect  score,  5  points. 


56  CORN  AND   GRAIN  JUDGING 

(b)  SPACE  BETWEEN  KERNELS.  No  space  should  be  no- 
ticeable at  the  tips  near  where  they  are  attached  to  the 
cob.  Perfect  score,  5  points. 

Directions  for  Judging.  —  Straight  rows  are  the  most 
desirable  as  they  give  a  uniform  appearance  to  the  ear  and 
admit  of  the  kernels  being  placed  in  a  more  nearly  exact 
position.  The  kernels  on  ears  with  spiral  rows  are  irregular 


Fig.  30.  —  Spacing  of  kernels  on  cob.  The  ear  at  the  left  shows  kernels  that  are  close 
in  the  row.  The  »ext  ear  shows  kernels  that  are  loose  and  open,  indicating  poor 
development  at  the  tips.  The  three  ears  at  the  right  show  spaces  between  the  rows. 
The  short  ear  at  the  right  has  small  irregular  spaces ;  the  middle  one  of  these  three 
is  almost  ideal,  the  next  to  the  left  shows  wide  spaces  between  the  rows. 

as  to  depth,  width,  and  shape,  and  consequently  are  not 
wanted.  From  corn  breeding  experiments  at  several  ex- 
periment stations  it  has  been  determined  that  irregularities 
are  transmitted  by  the  mother  ear  to  the  progeny,  there- 
fore if  one  desires  to  make  the  most  rapid  advancement 
in  breeding  to  a  highly  developed  type,  he  should  select 
only  the  ears  regular  in  all  characteristics. 
The  furrow  or  groove  should  not  descend  to  any  great 


PERCENTAGE   OF   GRAIN  TO   COB  57 

depth  but  merely  mark  the  dividing  line  between  the  kernels 
from  butt  to  tip.  Where  the  furrow  is  deep,  thereby  expos- 
ing a  large  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  kernel,  it  indicates 
that  the  corn  is  badly  off  type. 

The  amount  of  space  between  kernels  at  the  cob  indicates 
maturity  and  vitality.  The  kernel  tip  in  immature  corn  is 
shriveled  and  therefore  leaves  a  space  readily  detected. 
In  well-matured  corn  no  noticeable  space  will  be  found, 
but  the  kernels  will  fit  tightly  together  from  tip  to  crown. 

Rule  for  Scoring.  —  Cut  .25  of  a  point  for  -^  to  iV  inch 
furrows,  and  cut  .5  of  a  point  for  ^  inch  and  above. 
Cut  .5  of  a  point  for  each  ear  showing  space  between  ker- 
nels at  the  cob. 

PERCENTAGE  OF   GRAIN  TO  COB 

Perfect  Score.  —  The  percentage  of  grain  should  equal 
the  standard  for  the  variety.  Perfect  score,  10  points. 

Directions  for  Judging.  —  Good,  well-matured  corn 
should  show  a  ratio  of  from  84  to  87  per  cent  grain  to  cob. 
In  other  words,  if  we  were  to  shell  100  pounds  of  ear  corn, 
we  would  get  approximately  84  pounds  of  kernels  and  16 
pounds  of  cobs.  The  tendency  with  some  corn  growers  is 
to  look  for  a  small  cob,  thinking  that  feature  of  corn  to  be 
the  leading  desirable  characteristic.  In  many  instances  the 
selection  of  small  cobs  has  been  practiced  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  yield  of  grain  has  been  materially  reduced. 

One  should  choose  a  medium-sized  cob  that  will  carry 
from  1 6  to  20  rows  of  kernels  of  medium  depth.  If  the 
size  of  the  cob  is  reduced  the  ear  simply  drops  its  rows  by 
pairs  until  we  have  but  10  or  12  rows  remaining.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  cob  is  too  small  and  the  grower  has  been 
working  for  a  high  percentage  of  grain  to  cob,  the  kernels  are 


58  CORN  AND    GRAIN  JUDGING 

apt  to  be  of  too  great  depth  to  mature  well  in  northern 
climates.  Immature  and  chaffy  corn  gives  a  relatively  low 
percentage  of  grain  to  cob  compared  with  well-ripened  corn. 
When  judging  corn  for  percentage  of  grain  to  cob,  weigh 
five  ears  of  the  sample  and  record  the  total  weight.  Then 


Fig.  31.  —  Proportion  of  cob  to  grain.  The  cobs  and  grain  of  the  two  ears  at  the  right 
are  shown  at  the  left.  The  shorter  ear  with  thicker  cob  had  more  grain  than  the 
long  ear  with  the  slender  cob.  The  percentage  of  grain  to  cob  cannot  be  judged 
accurately  with  the  eye,  and  the  grain  should  be  shelled  off  and  both  cob  and  grain 
weighed  to  determine  this  point. 

shell  and  weigh  the  grain  and  record  the  weight.  Divide 
the  number  representing  the  weight  of  the  shelled  grain 
by  the  number  representing  the  weight  of  the  ears  and  the 
result  will  be  the  percentage  of  shelled  corn. 

GENERAL   CUTS 

Directions  for  Judging.  —  A  defect  may  be  so  serious 
that  it  should  cut  down  the  sample  as  a  whole  over  and 
above  the  cuts  given  on  the  ears.  An  ear  in  a  sample  of 


JUDGING   SMALL   GRAINS  59 

yellow  corn  showing  all  kernels  mixed  and  whitish  would 
indicate  that  the  ear  was  crossed  with  white  corn  and 
wholly  unfit  for  seed.  A  white  cob  in  yellow  corn,  or  a 
red  cob  in  white  corn,  indicates  reversion  which  is  nearly 
as  bad.  Any  condition  which  shows  that  the  corn  will 
not  germinate  would  be  a  defect  serious  enough  to  score 
directly  against  the  sample  as  a  whole. 

Rules  for  Scoring.  —  A  cut  of  10  points  should  be  made 
for  every  ear  that  is  crossed,  as  shown  by  a  great  preponder- 
ance of  kernels  of  a  different  color  or  type. 

A  cut  of  5  points  should  be  made  on  every  ear  of  yellow 
corn  having  a  white  cob,  or  an  ear  of  white  corn  having  a 
red  cob. 

Every  ear  that  is  diseased  or  damaged  in  any  way  so  that 
none,  or  practically  none,  of  the  kernels  will  germinate, 
should  be  cut  10  points. 

If  the  sample  as  scored  in  the  previous  example  gets  a 
rating  of  69.5,  and  the  general  defects  as  above  cited  de- 
mand attention,  there  should  be  deducted  from  the  score  the 
number  of  points  deemed  necessary  for  such  defects. 

General  score 69.5 

Cuts  for  general  defects 5. 

Final  score 64.5 

JUDGING   SMALL   GRAINS 

Small  grains  are  usually  judged  under  the  following 
heads :  trueness  to  type  or  breed  characteristics ;  uni- 
formity in  the  size  and  shape  of  kernels ;  color  of  grain ; 
freedom  from  mixture  with  other  grains ;  size  of  kernel ; 
freedom  from  weed  seed,  dirt,  and  other  foreign  material ; 
weight  of  grain  per  bushel;  viability;  damaged,  smutty, 
or  musty  kernels;  hardness  and  texture. 


60  CORN  AND    GRAIN  JUDGING 

Trueness  to  Type.  —  In  judging  trueness  to  type  in 
samples  of  grain  we  take  into  consideration  those  charac- 
teristics which  are  common  to  that  particular  variety  of 
grain.  To  be  true  to  type  all  the  kernels  should  bear  a 
close  resemblance  to  each  other.  Some  kernels  may  be 
smaller  than  the  others,  but  should  have  the  same  general 
appearance,  the  same  markings,  and  the  same  color. 

Some  varieties  of  oats,  for  example,  have  short,  plump 
grains,  others  have  long,  slender,  or  pointed  grains.  Some 
varieties  with  short,  plump  grains  have  large  kernels,  others 
small,  and  the  same  is  true  of  those  varieties  having  long, 
slender  grains.  These  same  observations  apply  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  to  barley,  wheat,  and  rye.  In  general,  the 
points  which  determine  type  are  color,  size,  and  shape  of 
kernel,  presence  or  absence  of  awns  and  hulls  in  oats ; 
presence  or  absence  of  beards  and  hulls,  and  the  straight- 
ness  or  crookedness  of  the  kernel  furrows  in  barley ;  and 
the  color,  size,  and  shape  of  kernels  in  wheat.  Oats  may 
or  may  not  have  hulls.  They  may  be  white,  yellow,  gray, 
red,  or  black  or  have  different  sizes  and  shapes  of  kernels, 
depending  upon  the  variety,  but  there  should  be  no  mixture 
of  one  variety  with  another. 

Barley  may  or  may  not  have  hulls,  or  beards  ;  they  may 
be  black,  blue,  or  white.  The  kernels  may  be  long  and 
slender,  or  short  and  plump.  The  furrow  in  a  kernel  of 
barley  may  be  straight  or  crooked,  depending  upon  the 
arrangement  on  the  flower  stem.  In  six-rowed  barley, 
two  thirds  of  the  grains  have  crooked  furrows.  In  two- 
rowed  barley,  the  furrows  are  straight.  No  mixture  of 
these  classes  is  allowable. 

Wheat  may  vary  in  color  from  white  to  a  dark  red,  and 
may  be  hard  or  soft,  depending  upon  the  variety  and  the 


JUDGING    SMALL    GRAINS  61 

region  where  it  is  grown.  The  kernels  may  possess  a 
wrinkled  surface  or  be  perfectly  smooth ;  some  may  be  long 
and  pointed  and  others  short  and  oblong,  depending  upon 
varieties.  It  is  important  that  these  different  types  be 
not  found  in  the  same  sample  if  it  is  to  be  considered  as 
true  to  type. 

Uniformity  in  Size  and  Shape  of  Kernels.  —  In  an  ideal 
sample  of  grain,  all  the  kernels  should  be  the  same  size  and 
shape.  They  may  all  be  small  or  all  be  large,  but  they 
must  be  all  of  uniform  size  and  shape.  This  is  important 
because  the  grain  may  then  be  sown  at  a  more  uniform  rate 
and  all  plants  grown  therefrom  are  likely  to  be  of  equal 
strength  and  vigor. 

Color  of  Grain.  —  All  kernels  in  the  sample  should  be  of 
the  same  color.  No  black,  red,  gray,  or  yellow  oats  should 
be  found  in  a  sample  of  white  oats.  No  mixture  of  light  and 
dark  or  red  and  white  wheat  is  allowable.  The  last  rule, 
of  course,  applies  equally  to  the  grains  of  other  colors. 
This  point  must  be  closely  watched,  as  it  is  an  indication 
either  of  mixture  or  of  a  lack  of  breeding. 

Freedom  from  Mixture  with  Other  Grains.  —  The 
value  of  grain  for  seed  is  greatly  reduced  whenever  there  is  a 
mixture  of  other  grains.  Special  application  of  this  point 
can  also  be  made  to  wheat  and  barley  for  other  reasons. 
Wheat  to  make  the  best  flour  should  be  absolutely  pure 
and  the  best  prices  can  be  obtained  for  it  when  it  is  of  that 
grade.  In  the  manufacture  of  malt,  maltsters  wish  to  use 
only  pure  barley,  and  a  mixture  of  other  grains  is  undesir- 
able. Oats  in  barley  are  especially  objectionable,  as  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  separate  them  from  the  barley. 

Size  of  Kernel.  --  The  size  of  the  kernels  should  be  con- 
sidered. In  any  grain  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  kernels  as 


CORN  AND   GRAIN  JUDGING 


Fig.  32.  —  Corn  grown  from  well-selected  stock. 


JUDGING   SMALL  GRAINS  63 

large  as  possible,  up  to  a  certain  limit.  Therefore,  all  the 
grains  of  a  sample  should  be  large  for  the  variety,  as  this  is 
an  indication  of  a  well-matured  and  vigorous  grain.  In 
other  words,  the  kernels  should  be  large  and  plump,  not 
undersized  or  shrunken. 

Freedom  from  Weed  Seed,  Dirt,  and  Other  Foreign 
Material.  —  The  grain  should  be  free  from  all  kinds  of  foul 
material.  A  sample  is  at  once  scored  against  heavily  if  not 
thoroughly  clean.  The  cut  should  be  much  more  severe 
if  among  the  weed  seeds  in  the  grain  there  are  those  of 
noxious  weeds,  such  as  Canada  thistle,  quack  grass,  and 
wild  mustard.  Cracked  and  shrunken  grain,  weed  seeds, 
and  other  objectionable  materials  should  be  separated  from 
the  good  grain.  The  farmer  should  make  this  separation 
himself.  The  increased  price  obtained  for  the  cleaned 
grain  will  ordinarily  more  than  pay  for  the  cleaning,  and  the 
screenings  can  be  converted,  by  grinding,  into  a  good  grade 
of  ground  feed  for  stock.  The  grain  can  be  cleaned  on  rainy 
days  or  in  winter  when  the  value  of  labor  is  low.  The  full 
value  of  a  good  fanning  mill  or  grain  grader  is  seldom 
realized. 

Weight  of  Grain  per  Bushel.  —  The  weight  of  grain  per 
measured  bushel  is  usually  an  indication  of  quality  and  is 
the  principal  point  by  which  grain  inspectors  and  buyers 
determine  the  grade  and  market  value  of  grain.  In  wheat, 
high  weight  is  indicative  of  comparatively  high  protein,  or 
more  specifically,  gluten  content,  and  it  is  the  amount  of 
gluten  in  wheat  which  determines  its  bread-making  qualities. 
In  barley,  the  same  rule  applies.  Feeders  of  live  stock  want 
a  high  protein  barley. 

In  oats  the  higher  the  proportion  of  meat  to  hulls  the 
better  the  feeding  value  of  the  oats,  as  the  hulls  consist 


64  CORN  AND   GRAIN  JUDGING 

largely  of  crude  fiber.  The  heavier  the  oats  the  higher  the 
percentage  of  meats  and  the  lower  the  percentage  of  hulls. 
The  average  per  cent  of  meat  to  hulls  for  oats  in  the  United 
States  is  70  per  cent,  but  may  vary  greatly,  depending  upon 
the  season,  the  quality,  and  the  variety  of  oats. 

Viability.  —  For  the  best  results  no  seed  grain  should 
have  a  germination  test  of  less  than  95  per  cent.  A  higher 
percentage  of  germination  is  more  desirable.  Germination 
should  be  strong  and  vigorous,  resulting  in  a  strong,  rapidly 
growing  young  plant. 

Damaged,  Smutty,  or  Musty  Kernels.  —  Wheat  should 
contain  no  smutty  or  musty  kernels.  The  smut  darkens 
the  flour  and  gives  it  a  bitter  flavor.  If  musty  kernels 
exist  in  any  quantity  in  the  wheat,  the  flavor  can  at  once 
be  detected  in  the  flour.  Both  of  these  conditions  lower 
the  value  of  wheat  for  any  purpose  and  when  very  bad 
render  it  utterly  valueless  for  the  making  of  flour. 

Barley  should  also  be  free  from  these  same  defects. 
Smutty  or  musty  barley  is  worthless  for  pearling  purposes 
or  breakfast  foods,  and  it  also  makes  poor  feed  for  stock. 
Oats  also  should  be  free  from  smut. 

Hardness  and  Texture.  -  -  Texture  is  very  important 
when  considered  in  connection  with  wheat,  barley,  and 
rye.  The  hardness  or  softness  of  the  berry  is  recognized 
by  its  texture.  Its  true  value  as  a  flour-producing  cereal 
is  determined  by  its.  hard  flinty  character. 

Excessive  discoloration,  sprouted  kernels,  and  imma- 
turity are  the  most  important  factors  affecting  the  texture 
in  grains.  Texture  is  readily  disclosed  by  cutting  cross- 
wise a  number  of  the  kernels  in  a  sample. 

Odor  of  Oats. --The  odor  of  oats  should  be  sweet. 
There  should  be  no  musty  or  burnt  odor  that  indicates  that 


EXERCISES  65 

oats  are  not  in  good  keeping  condition,  or  that  they  have 
been  overheated  in  the  bin  or  stack.  Such  conditions  have 
a  tendency  to  destroy  both  the  seed  and  the  feed  value  of 
the  grain. 

Elevator  men  often  resort  to  a  process  of  bleaching  to 
whiten  oats  that  have  been  blackened  or  otherwise  injured 
by  exposure  to  the  weather.  Sulphur  is  used  as  the  bleach- 
ing agent  and  oats  thus  treated  often  retain  the  smell  of 
sulphur.  Oats  or  barley  treated  in  this  way  should  be 
avoided  as  they  are  apt  to  be  injurious  as  feed,  and  often 
the  vitality  or  germinating  power  is  destroyed  or  seriously 
impaired. 

Score  Cards.  —  Score  cards  for  use  in  the  judging  of 
small  grains  are  to  be  found  in  the  several  chapters  dealing 
with  these  products. 

EXERCISES 

1.  After  shelling  an  ear  of  corn  that  weighed  12  ounces  it 
was  found  that  the  corn  weighed   10  ounces  and  the  cob  2. 
What  was  the  per  cent  of  corn  to  cob  ? 

2.  If  it  cost  ij  cents  an  ear  to  test  seed  corn,  how  much 
would  it  cost  to  test  the  seed  corn  for  640  acres  of  land,  if  it  re- 
quired 15  ears  of  seed  corn  per  acre  and  if  only  75  per  cent  of 
the  tested  ears  were  sufficiently  good  for  seed? 

3.  If  the  testing  of  the  seed  was  the  means  of  increasing  the 
yield  5  bushels  per  acre,  and  corn  was  worth  60  cents  per 
bushel  on  the  market,  how  much  money  would  a  farmer  get 
for  the  extra  yield  on  the  640  acres  ? 

4.  Compare  four  yellow  varieties  of  corn  and  two  white 
varieties  for  breed  characteristics. 

5.  Determine  percentage  of  corn  to  cob  by  weighing  the 
cobs  and  shelled  corn. 

6.  Soak  kernels  of  corn  for  a  half  hour  in  hot  water,  then 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD.  —  5 


66  CORN  AND   GRAIN  JUDGING 

divide  the  kernel  into  the  following  parts:  tip  cap,  hull  or 
outer  covering,  sticky  layer  underneath  hull,  hard  and  soft 
starch,  and  the  germ. 

HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Prepare  threshed  grains  for  show  purposes: 

The  first  step  is  to  get  plump  grains  with  good  color.  Rain 
will  discolor  oats  and  barley  and  make  them  unfit  for  show 
purposes.  This  can  be  avoided  by  hauling  in  a  small  load  of 
the  bundles  and  letting  them  cure  in  the  barn.  Then  thresh 
this  grain  separately.  Later  run  the  grain  through  the  fanning 
mill  and  grade  out  all  light  seeds,  chaff,  and  foreign  matter, 
and  retain  the  large  heavy  kernels.  Get  a  half  bushel  or  more 
ready.  Pick  out  by  hand  any  bad  kernels  you  may  find.  It  is 
not  a  difficult  matter  to  prepare  a  show  sample  of  any  good 
grain. 

2.  Prepare  sheaf  grains  for  exhibits  according  to  the  follow- 
ing directions.     Pick  from  your  field  some  good,  ripe  heads  and 
tall  stalks  of  oats,  barley,  wheat,  rye,  or  whatever  grains  you 
may  be  growing  and  allow  them  to  cure  under  cover.     Then 
strip  off  all  leaves  of  each  stem,  and  put  together  in  a  three-  or 
four-inch  bundle.     Try  to  secure  well-filled  heads  and  as  bright 
straw  as  possible. 

The  rules  and  requirements  relating  to  samples  of  grains 
issued  by  the  persons  in  charge  of  exhibits  should  be  carefully 
studied  by  exhibitors. 


CHAPTER   IV 
WHEAT 

History.  —  Wheat  has  followed  civilization  throughout 
the  world  and  has  made  it  possible  for  us  to  obtain  a  whole- 
some food  at  a  relatively  low  cost.  No  other  crop  has 
so  important  a  place  in  international  commerce,  and  no 
other  has  exerted  a  greater  influence  upon  the  human  race. 

Wheat  was  first  grown  as  a  food  in  southwestern  Asia  and 
from  there  carried  into  Europe  and  Africa.  It  is  thought 
that  wheat  was  first  brought  to  the  western  continent  by 
Cortez  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest.  Barley  vied 
with  wheat  as  a  human  food  in  Europe  and  Asia  for  many 
centuries,  but  wheat  gradually  gained  in  favor  and  is  now 
the  popular  bread-making  cereal  of  the  world. 

Classification  and  Varieties.  --There  are  eight  different 
species  or  subspecies  of  wheat  which  are  now  cultivated ; 
namely,  Einkorn,  Polish  wheat,  Emmer,  Spelt,  Club 
wheat,  Poulard  wheat,  Durum  wheat,  and  common  wheat. 

This  chapter  deals  principally  with  the  common,  bread- 
making  wheat.  There  are  numerous  varieties  of  common 
wheat,  but  for  all  practical  purposes  they  can  be  classified 
as  spring  wheat  and  winter  wheat,  of  which  there  are  hard 
and  soft  varieties,  likewise  bearded  and  beardless  varie- 
ties. The  hard  and  soft  winter  wheats  may  be  either  red 
or  white  in  color. 

The  Turkey  Red  wheat  with  its  several  subvarieties  is 
most  widely  grown  as  hard  winter  wheat  and  the  Fultz  as 

67 


68 


WHEAT 


VARIETIES   OF  WHEAT 


69 


soft  winter  wheat  The  Fife,  Marquis,  Bluestem,  and  Vel- 
vet Chaff  are  best  known  and  most  widely  grown  as  hard 
spring  wheats.  The  Velvet  Chaff  is  a  bearded  spring 
wheat  of  the  Fife  variety,  but  is  considered  inferior  to  Fife 
and  Bluestem  as  a  bread-making  wheat. 

The  type  of  wheat  known  as  the  Durum  or  Macaroni  is 
now  quite  generally  grown  in  the  semiarid  regions  of  the 


Fig.  34.  —  Some  common  strains  of  wheat.     From  left  to  right,  Turkey  Red,  Fife, 
Velvet  Chaff,  and  Bluestem.     The  Fife  and  the  Bluestem  are  beardless. 

United  States.  This  wheat  is  drought  and  rust  resistant, 
and  for  these  reasons  is  quite  popular  in  those  regions.  It 
is  very  hard  and  high  in  gluten  content  but  loses  these 
properties  and  its  resistance  to  disease  if  grown  in  a  moist 
climate.  The  Durum  wheats  are  bearded  spring  varieties. 


'MM    \l 


Habits  of  Growth,      win..i  .     n.ni.ii  I.,I,,,N  •  ...  ,,.,i  ,, 
but  ii  HUM    tnori   heavily,  sending  up  several  A<il-devcl-' 

oped  linn   in. I..  ..   n.:-i.    . « .1     h  ii  ii. ill-  ..  celvi    n    plant 

IIMM!    hold    ||,<       ml.,,  r   -Mil      |, ut    will  n     Hi'       ul.   nil    I      IIOl     lOO 

I, .,..1    il    ••  ill   |,<  IX  li..h    lli.il    III    «)   !"i     loud   .....I    I.K.I    Mil.          l.ll   < 


I,,        ,-  I-.,  M,.l  •    ,,f    ||. <     -I,.,,,,  •     ,.f     -  l,.:,l    S|,,,vvn    II.     |.-iF      ,        I          r.uKrv    Hr,1, 

i,  Jifoi  1*  VtlfttCteMf)  4.  Blutitom, 


.....  i    ,,|    il,,      111. ill  M  real     il.<      i.  M,     <.|   \\hr..i    arc 

ami  hoUow,  and  grow  to  a  heigln    i  three  to  five  feet. 
Preparation   of  the   Seed   Bed,      \\h<  .<    M<«I    \\di 

ilciinril    Unil    in    a    hij-'h    -,l;tlr   ol    Inlilifx         It    i^    Useless    to 

attempt  to  grow  wheat  on  light  mm- IN    <>ils  or  on  bottom 

l.m.l     thai   aiv  ii.. i    \\.  II  ihainr.l       A   mc<liuiu  (n  hea\  >    day 

or  a  day  I«MM.  m  \\  I>N«I  with  IHMIUIS  is  to  be  preferred  i.-i 
niiHit,    Like  other  crops,  wheat  responds  to  good  treat- 
ment, and  farmer*  im.i  diemselves  amply  repaid  in   in 
creased  pield    and  good  qualitv   foi  gtvin|  extra  i-arc  to 

ll,.    ,.,.  I..U..I..M,  .-I   111.      ..,1  I  in  I 


TKSTING  AND   SOWING  THK   SKKD  71 

For  spring  wheat  il  is  a  good  practice'  to  have  la.nd  fall 
plowed,  so  that  the  disk  harrow  .may  be  run  over  the  ground 
in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  soil  works  well.  The  disk 
harrow  should  be  followed  by  the  fine-tooth  harrow  so  as 
to  fine  the  soil  and  make  a  mellow  seed  bed. 

Winter  wheat  usually  follows  a  cultivated  crop  or  an- 
other grain  crop.  The  ground  is  plowed  and  prepared 
soon  after  the  previous  crop  is  harvested.  When  put  on 
mellow  corn  land  often  no  plowing  is  necessary  as  disking 
is  sufficient  to  prepare  a  proper  seed  bed. 

Grading,  Testing,  and  Sowing  the  Seed.  —  Wheat  should 
be  run  through  a  grain  grader  or  fanning  mill  so  that  weed 
seeds,  dirt,  and  broken  and  shriveled  kernels  can  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  seed.  By  grading  carefully  the  light  inferior 
kernels  can  be  separated  from  the  plump  heavy  ones,  and 
thus  prevent  "  running  out  "  which  in  time  occurs  where 
the  grading  of  the  seed  grain  is  not  practiced.  All  seeds 
planted  on  the  farm  should  be  tested  for  germination  before 
planting.  Wheat  and  other  small  grains  can  be  tested  in 
the  same  manner  that  alfalfa  seed  is  tested  as  described 
on  page  144,  under  the  head  "  Testing  the  Seed." 


Fig.  36.  —  Seeding  wheat  with  a  four-horse  drill. 


WHEAT 


HARVESTING  73 

Wheat  is  sown  with  a  drill  or  with  a  broadcast  seeder  at  the 
rate  of  1.5  to  2  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  In  sowing  with  a 
drill,  which  places  all  the  kernels  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  usually  a  less  amount  of  seed  need  be  used  than 
when  it  is  sown  with  a  broadcast  seeder.  Where  fall  grains 
are  sown  the  furrow  made  by  the  drill  aids  in  holding 
snow,  which  prevents  the  freezing  out  of  the  grains.  On 
ground  that  has  been  newly  cleared  and  on  rocky  lands  the 
broadcast  seeder  can  be  used  to  advantage. 

Harvesting.  —  After  seeding  no  further  labor  is  neces- 
sary on  the  wheat  fields  until  time  for  harvesting.  The 


Fig,  38.  —  Harvesting  wheat  with  a  grain  binder.     The  bundle  carrier  attachment 
is  at  the  extreme  right. 

grain  binder  is  most  generally  used  for  this  purpose.  This 
machine  cuts  and  binds  the  grain,  and  if  provided  with 
bundle  carrier  attachment,  drops  the  sheaves  at  such  inter- 
vals as  the  operator  desires.  In  some  parts  of  Canada  and 
in  the  Western  States  headers  and  combined  harvesters  and 
threshers  are  used  for  harvesting  the  crop.  These  ma- 
chines can  be  so  gauged  as  merely  to  cut  the  heads  off  the 


74  WHEAT 

wheat,  and  drop  the  same  in  an  elevator  that  carries  the 
grain  through  a  cylinder  from  which  it  comes  out  threshed 
and  ready  for  the  sack.  These  machines  are  used  in  the 
semiarid  regions  where  grain  seldom  lodges,  and  where  a 
large  acreage  is  devoted  to  wheat  raising. 

On  the  medium-sized  farms  the  wheat  after  being  cut 
and  bound  is  put  up  in  shocks  and  left  in  the  field  until 
quite  dry.  In  many  localities  the  wheat  is  taken  directly 
from  the  shock  to  the  threshing  machine.  In  others,  it  is 
hauled  to  a  convenient  place  and  stacked  or  taken  directly 


Fig.  39.  —  Wheat  in  shocks. 

to  the  barn  and  stowed  away  to  await  the  threshing  ma- 
chine. If  wheat  is  left  for  three  or  four  weeks  in  the  stack 
or  in  the  barn,  it  will  be  found  in  good  condition  to  thresh 
and  will  keep  well  in  storage.  After  wheat  is  hauled  from 
the  fields  and  stacked  or  stored  away  in  barns  it  goes 
through  a  sweating  process.  This  lasts  for  two  or  three 
weeks  depending  upon  the  ripeness  and  dryness  of  the 
wheat  when  stored  away.  If  threshed  during  the  time  it  is 
going  through  the  sweat,  the  straw  and  grain  will  be  found 
to  be  damp.  The  straw  is  tough  and  will  not  run  through 
the  machine  readily  and  the  wheat  will  heat  and  mold 


CROP  ROTATION 


75 


when  stored.  If  wheat  is  found  to  be  in  the  sweat  at  the 
time  of  threshing  it  is  well  to  store  in  large  shallow  bins 
where  it  can  be  shoveled 
over  at  frequent  inter- 
vals until  dry.  In  the 
wheat-growing  regions 
there  are  many  elevators 
where  grain  is  taken  im- 
mediately after  thresh- 
ing and  there  cleaned, 
sweated,  and  stored  for 
future  shipment.  Much 
of  the  wheat  is  manu- 
factured into  flour  at 
the  great  milling  centers 
and  sent  from  there  to 
different  parts  of  the 
world. 

Rotation.  —  Wheat  should  be  grown  in  a  rotation  with  a 
leguminous  and  a  cultivated  crop.  Good  rotations  for 
wheat  are  the  following : 

THREE   YEAR  ROTATION 

FIRST  YEAR.  —  Corn,  potatoes,  or  root  crops  on  young  sod. 

SECOND  YEAR.  —  Wheat,  seeded  down  with  clover. 

THIRD  YEAR.  —  Clover,  first  cutting  used  for  hay ;  second,  turned  under. 

FOUR  YEAR  ROTATION 

FIRST  YEAR.  —  Corn,  peas,  potatoes,  or  root  crops  on  young  sod. 
SECOND  YEAR.  —  Wheat,  seeded  down  with  clover  and  timothy. 
THIRD  YEAR.  —  Clover,  two  cuttings  of  clover,  pasture  in  the  fall. 
FOURTH  YEAR.  —  Mixed  hay,  fall  plowed  for  corn. 

FIVE   YEAR   ROTATION 

The  same  as  the  four  except  the  field  is  not  plowed  at  the  close  of  the 
fourth  year  of  the  rotation  but  is  run  the  fifth  as  pasture.  The  five  year 
rotation  is  common  where  a  large  amount  of  stock  is  kept  on  the  place  and 
much  pasturage  is  necessary. 


Fig.  40.  —  A  grain  elevator. 


76  WHEAT 

By  following  a  good  systematic  rotation  where  the  fields 
are  treated  with  manure  at  least  once  in  four  years  and 
also  have  a  cultivated  and  leguminous  crop  grown  during 
that  time,  the  ground  will  be  kept  in  a  good  state  of  fer- 
tility and  paying  crops  of  wheat  can  be  obtained. 

By  growing  the  wheat  crop  only  one  year  in  four,  insect 
enemies  and  diseases  that  usually  prey  upon  the  crop  will 
be  eliminated  from  the  soil.  The  cultivated  crop  grown 
during  the  rotation  will  eradicate  the  weeds  and  retain 
moisture ;  and  the  leguminous  crop  will  add  nitrogen  and 
humus  to  the  soil,  which  are  so  necessary  in  wheat  growing. 

Enemies.  —  Some  of  the  enemies  of  wheat  that  have 
prevented  good  yields  in  the  past  are  rust,  smut,  scab, 
Hessian  fly,  jointworm,  chinch  bug,  army  worm,  midge, 
stem  maggot,  wireworm,  weevil,  and  grain  moth. 

The  treatment  for  wheat  smuts  is  the  same  as  that  used 
for  the  barley  smuts,  as  outlined  in  the  next  chapter.  The 
other  wheat  pests  are  partially  controlled  by  rotation  and 
time  of  seeding. 

SCORING  WHEAT 

Score  a  sample  of  wheat  according  to  the  following  direc- 
tions. 

On  a  page  of  your  notebook  copy  the  score  card  on  the 
next  page  and  fill  the  blank  spaces  with  your  scores. 
Below  your  score  card  give  your  reasons  for  your  score 
on  each  of  the  ten  heads.  Number  your  reasons  to  cor- 
respond with  the  number  of  each  head  on  the  score  card. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SCORING  WHEAT 
i.   All  kernels  should  possess  the  characteristics  of  their  type 

and  variety. 

Take  100  kernels,  constituting  a  fair  sample  of  the  grain. 

Count  out  the  kernels  not  true  to  type  into  three  grades.     In 


SCORING   WHEAT 


77 


the  grade  badly  off  type  cut  .1  of  a  point  for  each  kernel.  In 
the  next  grade  cut  .1  of  a  point  for  two  kernels  and  in  the  best 
grade  cut  .1  of  a  point  for  every  three  kernels.  Repeat  three 
times  and  find  the  average. 

2.  Kernels  should  be  of  the  same  size  and  shape  within  the 
limits  of  the  type  and  variety. 

Proceed  as  in  No.  i . 

3.  The  color  should  be  uniform  for  the  type  or  variety.     Dis- 
coloration should  be  severely  cut. 

Proceed  as  in  No.  i. 

4.  The  sample  should  be  pure  wheat. 

Take  100  kernels,  constituting  a  fair  sample,  count  out  the 
foreign  grains.     For  each  foreign  kernel  cut  .1  of  a  point. 

5.  All  the  kernels  should  be  large  and  plump  for  the  class. 
Separate  a  sample  of  100  kernels  and  proceed  as  in  No.  i. 

WHEAT   SCORE   CARD 

NAME  AND  NUMBER  OF  SCORER 

SAMPLE  NUMBER DATE.  . 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

i.   Trueness  to  type    or  breed 
characteristics     ....     5 

2.   Uniformity  in  size  and  shape 
of  kernels   ...                    5 

3.    Color  of  grain     ...              10 

4.   Mixture  with  other  grains   .   10 

5.    Size  of  kernel     10 

6.   Weed  seed,  dirt,  and  other 
foreign  material                  .    10 

7.    Damaged,  smutty,  or  musty 
kernels  15 

8.   Weight  per  bushel       .     .     .15 

o.    Viability  10 

TO.    Hardness  and  texture       .     .   10 

Total                                         100 



78  WHEAT 

6.  The  sample  should  be  free  from  dirt  and  weed  seeds. 
Cut  sample  .2  of  a  point  for  each  per  cent  of  foul  material. 

7.  The  sample  should  be  free  from  musty,  smutty,  broken, 
or  bin-burned  kernels,  and  should  have  a  sweet  grain  odor. 

From  a  sample  of  100  kernels  determine  the  per  cent  of 
damaged,  smutty,  broken,  or  bin-burned  kernels  and  cut.  2  of  a 
point  for  each  per  cent.  For  bad  odor,  cut  sample  from  i  to  10 
points. 

8.  The  standard  is  60  pounds  per  measured  bushel. 
For  each  pound  below  60  pounds  cut  i  point. 

9.  Wheat  should  give  a  germination  of  not  less  than  100  per 
cent. 

Cut  .5  of  a  point  for  each  per  cent  germination  below  100. 

10.  The  best  flour  wheats  are  hard  and  flinty. 

Cut  .5  of  a  point  for  each  per  cent  of  soft,  starchy  kernels. 

HOME   PROJECTS 

i.  Determine  the  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  wheat  by 
keeping  a  record  of  the  following  items. 

(a)  Rent  of  land  (estimated),  (b)  Cost  of  fertilizer  (if  any). 
(c)  Cost  of  plowing,  harrowing,  seeding,  harvesting,  and  thresh- 
ing. Base  these  computations  on  records  of  actual  time  spent 
in  all  labor  operations. 

2.  Grade  wheat  for  seeding  purposes. 

3.  Select  threshed  samples  for  show  purposes. 

4.  Grow   an   acre   of   pedigree  wheat  in   comparison  with 
a   common   variety.      (Types    of    wheat,   barley,    and    other 
grains    that  have  been  materially  changed  by  careful   selec- 
tion or  crossbreeding  for  a  period  of  years  are  designated  as 
"  varieties. "      Where   a   superior    grain    has   been    developed 
from   a   single  seed  and  carried  through  a  course  of  several 
years  of   breeding  by  selection,  or    hybridization    and    selec- 
tion, and  an  accurate  record  kept  of  the  same,  it  is  known 
as  a  "  pedigree  "  variety.) 


CHAPTER   V 
BARLEY 

History.  —  Barley  was  known  throughout  Asia,  Africa, 
and  parts  of  Europe  before  the  Christian  Era,  and  was 
grown  largely  for  human  consumption.  As  a  bread-making 
grain,  it  gradually  gave  way  to  wheat  and  rye,  and  since 
the  fifteenth  century  has  been  grown  chiefly  as  an  animal 


Fig.  41.  —  A  field  of  barley  ready  to  be  harvested. 

food  and  for  malting  purposes.  The  early  settlers  of 
America  brought  barley  from  Europe  to  the  colonies  and 
disseminated  it  to  various  sections  of  the  United  States. 
Barley  can  be  grown  over  a  wide  latitude,  but  is  restricted 
to  certain  states  and  localities  on  account  of  soil  conditions. 

79 


80  BARLEY 

Classification.  —  Barley  is  commonly  classified  as  six- 
rowed,  four-rowed,  and  two-rowed.  The  four-rowed  does 
not  appear  to  be  a  distinct  variety  but  a  variation  of 
the  six-rowed  class.  There  are  bearded,  beardless,  and 
varieties  without  hulls,  in  each  of  the  above  classes.  There 


Fig.  42.  —  Some  types  of  barley.     From  left  to  right,  beardless,  two-rowed,  six-rowed. 

^re  also  fall  and  spring  varieties  of  barley,  as  is  the  case 
with  wheat.  The  term  "  variety  "  is  used  by  seedsmen, 
plant  breeders,  and  farmers  in  a  wider  and  less  rigid  sense 
than  that  applied  by  the  botanist. 


HABITS   OF   GROWTH 


81 


Habits  of  Growth.  —  Barley  is  an  erect  annual  plant. 
It  does  not  stool  or  tiller  so  heavily  as  rye,  wheat,  or  oats. 
On  fertile  soil,  however,  as  many  as  six  or  seven  stalks  will 
come  from  a  single  seed.  It  does  not  grow  so  tall  as  rye, 
wheat,  or  oats,  and  the  leaves  of  the 
plant  are  broader  during  the  earlier 
period  of  growth.  It  matures  earlier 
than  most  varieties  of  wheat  and 
oats,  and  consequently  can  be  har- 
vested earlier.  Its  roots  grow  near 
the  surface  of  the  soil  and  it  does 
not  feed  so  extensively  as  oats  or 
wheat,  therefore  it  requires  a  well- 
subdued,  mellow,  rich  soil  with  fer- 
tility near  the  surface.  No  crop 
responds  more  readily  to  good  tillage, 
and  the  prudent  farmer  soon  finds 
that  it  pays  to  put  extra  cultivation 
with  disk  and  fine-tooth  harrow  upon 
the  land  to  render  plant  food  avail- 
able and  to  prepare  a  good  mellow 
seed  bed  for  this  crop.  It  is  use- 
less to  try  to  grow  barley  upon 
poor  sandy  lands  or  worn-out  soils ; 
neither  does  it  do  well  on  ground 
that  has  been  newly  cleared,  or  is 
poorly  drained. 

Fall  plowing  is  preferable  on  clay 
or  clay  loam  soils  as  the  winter 
weathering  helps  to  disintegrate  the  soil  particles  and  to 
secure  good  tilth.  The  ground  should  be  disked  as  early 
as  it  will  work  well  in  the  spring  and  then  finished  with 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD.  —  6 


Fig-  43-  —  Plants  of  pedigree 
barley. 


82  BARLEY 

a  fine- tooth  harrow.  Ground  that  is  "  lumpy  "  after 
disking  should  be  run  over  with  roller  or  planker  previous 
to  harrowing.  If  ground  is  spring-plowed  it  should  be  run 
over  with  fine-tooth  harrow  the  same  day  that  the  plowing 
is  done,  to  prevent  the  surface  of  the  furrows  from  becom- 
ing dry  and  hard. 

Testing  the  Seed.  —  All  seed  barley  should  be  tested  for 
viability  before  sowing,  as  its  vitality  is  often  injured  by 
heating  in  the  stack  or  bin.  If  the  seed  is  of  low  vitality 
and  does  not  test  as  high  as  90  per  cent  it  should  be  re- 
garded as  inferior,  and  new  seed  should  be  purchased  or 
the  ground  upon  which  the  barley  was  to  be  sown  put  into 
other  crops. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  —  The  seeding  of  barley  should  follow 
that  of  oats  and  spring  wheat,  as  an  early  spring  frost  is 
more  injurious  to  young  barley  plants  than  to  other  small 
cereals.  A  drill  or  broadcast  seeder  is  commonly  used  and 
the  barley  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  1.5  to  2.5  bushels  per  acre. 
Where  it  is  desirable  to  seed  the  land  down  to  clover, 
timothy,  or  alfalfa  with  barley  as  a  nurse  crop,  one  bushel 
of  seed  per  acre  is  sufficient. 

Harvesting  the  Grain.  —  Objection  has  been  made  in  the 
past  to  the  barley  beards  during  harvesting  and  subsequent 
handling.  This  objection  has  been  largely  removed  since 
the  introduction  of  binders,  self-feeder  attachments  to 
threshing  machines,  and  straw  stackers.  The  prejudice 
against  the  use  of  the  straw  for  feed  or  bedding  for  stock 
has  little  foundation. 

Barley  should  be  harvested  when  well  ripened  and  when 
straw  and  heads  are  of  a  golden  yellow  color.  If  cut  when 
the  straw  is  green,  the  kernels  will  shrink  and  assume  an 
undesirable  ashen  color.  If  the  bundle  carrier  attachment 


HARVESTING   THE    GRAIN  83 

to  the  harvester  drops  the  bundles  at  the  right  points,  little 
handling  will  be  necessary.  The  shocking  should  be  done 
on  the  day  of  the  cutting.  By  putting  up  round  shocks, 
using  eight  bundles  for  foundation  and  two  bundles  for 
cap  sheaves,  the  barley  will  be  protected  from  dew,  sun- 
light, and  rains  which  decrease  its  market  value  by  injury 
to  its  color  and  vitality. 

The  length  of  time  that  barley  should  be  left  in  the  shock 
depends  upon  the  weather,  the  ripeness  of  the  crop  when 


Fig.  44.  —  A  field  of  barley  in  shock. 

cut,  and  the  abundance  of  weeds  bound  up  with  the  barley. 
After  the  barley  has  had  ample  time  to  dry  thoroughly  it 
should  be  drawn  to  the  barn  and  stored  therein  or  stacked 
conveniently  for  threshing  outside.  The  lack  of  sufficient 
help  and  barn  room  has  led  many  barley  growers  to  thresh 
directly  from  the  shock.  This  practice  does  not  permit  the 
barley  to  go  through  its  natural  sweating  process  while  in 
the  straw.  It  will  then  sweat  in  the  bin  and  extreme  heat 


84  BARLEY 

will  often  accompany  the  sweating  process.  This  causes 
deterioration  in  quality  that  can  in  no  way  be  overcome 
by  subsequent  treatment. 

Threshing.  —  If  the  farmer  has  insufficient  room  in  which 
to  store  the  sheaf  barley,  it  is  best  to  stack  outside  and 
leave  the  barley  in  the  stack  at  least  a  month  before  thresh- 
ing. If  the  barley  is  stacked  or  drawn  to  the  barn,  the  cap 
sheaf  bundles  should  be  stored  and  threshed  separately,  as 
much  discolored  grain  will  be  found  in  these  bundles  and 
this  should  not  be  mixed  with  other  barley.  Care  should 
be  taken  while  threshing  not  to  have  the  beards  cut  too 
close  to  the  kernel.  If  the  kernel  is  exposed,  it  injures  ger- 
mination and  favors  the  action  of  molds  during  the  sprout- 
ing process. 

Marketing  the  Crop.  —  Barley  serves  as  a  ready  money 
crop  for  most  growers  and  is  usually  put  on  the  market  soon 
after  threshing.  It  is  not  a  good  practice  to  put  weather- 
beaten  or  damaged  barley  on  the  market  as  the  price  will 
be  cut  severely  even  though  the  feeding  quality  is  but 
slightly  impaired.  It  is  far  better  to  use  such  injured 
barley  on  the  farm  and  secure  both  feeding  and  fertilizing 
value  from  it. 

Farmers  should  grow  but  one  variety  of  barley  and  that 
of  the  very  best.  Varieties  should  not  be  mixed  when 
being  put  on  the  market  either  as  seed  or  malting  barley. 
Different  varieties  of  barley  when  placed  on  the  malting 
floor  germinate  at  different  periods  of  time.  This  causes  a 
loss  and  a  corresponding  reduction  in  price.  The  maltster 
and  the  barley  pearler  desire  a  barley  of  one  distinct  type. 
This  should  be  uniform  in  quality  and  size  of  berry. 

Rotation.  —  Barley  should  be  grown  in  a  three  or  four 
years  rotation  where  it  follows  corn,  potatoes,  peas,  or  root 


FORMALDEHYDE    TREATMENT  85 

crops  that  have  been  grown  on  plowed  sod  land.  The 
land  should  be  seeded  down  to  clover  and  grasses  at  the 
same  time  or  immediately  after  the  barley  is  sown.  By 
following  this  system  of  rotation  the  seed  is  put  into  ground 
that  has  an  abundant  supply  of  vegetable  mold  occasioned 
by  the  decayed  sod. 

Diseases  and  Insect  Enemies.  —  Barley  is  comparatively 
free  from  diseases  and  insect  enemies.  It  is,  however, 
affected  with  rust,  leaf  stripe,  and  smut.  Little  has  yet 
been  accomplished  in  preventing  rust  but  good  work  has 
been  done  in  the  eradication  of  smuts.  In  a  few  instances 
rustproof  varieties  of  grains  have  been  bred  for  distinct 
localities. 

Eradication  of  Barley  Smut.  —  Barley  is  attacked  by 
two  varieties  of  smut,  —  the  loose  smut  and  the  closed 
smut,  the  former  being  the  more  prevalent  and  the  harder 
to  eradicate.  The  loose  smut  is  noticeable  as  soon  as 
barley  begins  to  head;  the  black  smutty  heads  may  be 
seen  pushing  out  from  the  sheath  in  which  they  are  inclosed. 
'A  few  days  after  the  smut  makes  its  first  appearance  it  will 
have  ripened,  and  the  spores  will  be  wafted  by  the  wind  to 
a  hiding  place  in  the  immature  kernels  where  they  remain 
secure  until  the  kernels  are  planted  the  following  year. 
After  the  smut  is  blown  away  nothing  is  seen  to  indicate 
disease  except  the  light  blackened  tip  of  the  barley  plant 
where  the  spike  should  be. 

Formaldehyde  Treatment  for  Barley  Smut.  —  For  eradi- 
cation of  loose  smut  submerge  the  barley  for  two  hours 
after  being  sacked  in  formaldehyde  solution.  Formalde- 
hyde solution  is  made  by  putting  one  pint  of  formaldehyde 
in  30  gallons  of  water.  The  above  treatment  will  also 
eradicate  leaf  stripe. 


86  BARLEY 

Hot  Water  Treatment  for  Smut.  —  Place  the  barley  in 
gunny  sacks  and  submerge  in  cold  water  for  12  hours. 
Remove  and  drain  for  an  hour,  then  submerge  for  5 
minutes  in  a  cask  containing  hot  water,  held  at  a  constant 
temperature  of  130  degrees  Fahrenheit.  It  is  well  to  warm 
the  barley  before  placing  it  in  the  hot  water  by  submerg- 
ing it  in  water  at  a  slightly  lower  temperature  for  a  minute 
or  two,  otherwise  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  cask 
will  be  materially  lowered.  Boiling  water  should  be  kept 
near  at  hand,  and  added  at  intervals  to  keep  the  temperature 
nearly  constant.  In  adding  the  boiling  water,  it  should 
never  be  allowed  to  come  into  direct  contact  with  the 
barley,  as  the  vitality  of  the  seed  will  be  injured  or  de- 
stroyed. 

After  the  hot  water  treatment,  the  seed  should  be 
spread  upon  the  barn  floor  to  cool  before  sowing.  It 
should  be  sown  the  same  day  or  the  day  after  treat- 
ment, otherwise  it  will  sprout  and  difficulty  will  be  found 
in  getting  it  through  the  seeder  or  drill. 

The  margin  of  temperature  which  is  effective  for  the 
destruction  of  the  smut  spore  is  so  narrow  that  the  operator 
must  be  supplied  with  a  good  standard  thermometer  and 
watch  the  process  closely.  If  the  water  in  which  the  seed 
barley  is  submerged  is  but  slightly  above  130  degrees,  the 
seed  will  be  injured,  and  if  a  few  degrees  lower  the  smut 
spores  will  not  be  killed.  On  account  of  the  liability  of 
error  it  is  advisable  for  barley  growers  to  treat  only  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  seed  to  sow  two  or  three  acres  and  save 
seed  for  future  sowing  from  this  particular  field  which  will 
have  little  or  no  smut  in  it.  The  closed  smut  of  barley  is 
readily  eradicated  by  the  formaldehyde  method,  if  treated 
as  recommended  for  oats  in  Chapter  VI. 


SCORING   BARLEY  87 

SCORING   BARLEY 

Judge  samples  of  barley.  Use  the  score  card  as  shown 
below,  and  note  carefully  the  points  to  be  observed  and  rules  for 
cuts.  After  a  little  practice  it  can  be  done  quickly  and  accu- 
rately. Copy  the  score  card  in  your  notebook  and  fill  the  blank 
spaces  with  your  scores.  Below  it  write  your  reasons  for  your 
score  on  each  of  the  ten  heads  of  the  score  cards.  Number 
your  reasons  to  correspond  with  the  points  on  the  score  card. 


BARLEY   SCORE   CARD 

NAME  AND  NUMBER  OF  SCORER 

SAMPLE  NUMBER  .  .  .  .  DATE  .  . 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

i.   Trueness   to   type  or  breed 
characteristics          ...       5 

2.   Uniformity  in  size  and  shape 
of  kernels    ...               .5 

3.    Color  of  grain                               15 

4.   Mixture  with  other  grains     .     10 

5.    Size  of  kernel      ....          ro 

6.   Weed   seed,  dirt,  and  other 
foreign  material        ...     10 

7.   Damaged,  smutty,  or  musty 
kernels                                       10 

8.   Weight  per  bushel        ...     15 

9.   Viability         10 

10.   Texture     .     .                              TO 

Total                                          100 

88  BARLEY 

DIRECTIONS   FOR   SCORING   BARLEY 

1.  All  kernels  of  the  sample  should  resemble  one  another  in 
shape,  color,  and  general  appearance. 

2.  Kernels  should  be  the  same  size  and  shape  throughout 
to  secure  uniformity. 

3.  Grain  should  all  be  light  or  golden  yellow  in  color. 

4.  It  must  be  pure  barley.     There  should  be  no  mixture  of 
oats,  wheat,  or  any  other  grain. 

5.  The  sample  as  a  whole  should  consist  of  large  and  plump 
grains,  not  small  or  shrunken  ones. 

6.  The  sample  should  be  free  from  dirt  and  weed  seeds. 
The  per  cent  of   foul  material  is  determined   by  the   use   of 
sieves  and  scales.     Should  the  foul  material  consist  of  noxious 
weed  seeds,  the  cut  on  sample  should  be   made   more   severe 
than  if  it  is  composed  of  practically  harmless  materials. 

7.  The  sample  should  be  free  from  smutty,  musty,  or  bin- 
burned  kernels.     Take  100  average  kernels  and  count  the  num- 
ber of  smutty  or  otherwise  injured  kernels.     Repeat  this  three 
times  and  find  the  average  of  the  three  trials.     The  number 
found  will  be  the  per  cent  of  poor  kernels. 

8.  Good  barley  should  weigh  48  or  more  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel.     The  weight  per  bushel  may  be  determined 
by  the  use  of  the  Winchester  measure. 

9.  Barley  should  give  a  germination  of  not  less  than  95  per 
cent. 

10.    Sample  should  be   free   from   excessive    discoloration, 
sprouted  kernels,  immaturity,  and  soft  berries. 

RULES   FOR   CUTS 

i.  Take  100  kernels  constituting  a  fair  sample  of  the  grain 
and  count  out  the  number  not  true  to  type.  Repeat  three 
times  and  find  average  of  the  three  trials.  For  each  kernel  off 
type,  cut  .1  of  a  point. 


HOME  PROJECTS 


89 


2.  Proceed  as  above  and  for  each  small  or  shrunken  kernel 
cut  .1  of  a  point. 

3.  For  discoloration  cut  according  to 
extent.      If   only  slightly  discolored  cut 
i  point,  or  more  as  per  cent  of  discolora- 
tion increases. 

4.  Weigh  the  whole  sample,  separate 
and  weigh  the  foreign  grain.     This  will 
give  per  cent  of  other  grains.     For  every 
per  cent  so  found  cut  .5  of  a  point. 

5.  Sample    should    consist    of    large 
plump  kernels,  not  small  ones.      Cut  as 
judgment    dictates,    considering    variety 
characteristics. 

6.  Cut  sample  i  point  for  each  per 
cent  of  foul  material. 

7.  Cut  sample  i  point  for  each  per 
cent   of    smutty,   bin-burned,   or  musty 
kernels". 

8.  Cut  i  point  for  each  pound  below 
48  pounds  in  weight. 

9.  Cut  .5  of  a  point  for  each  per  cent 
the  germination  falls  below  95  per  cent. 

10.  Cut  as  judgment  dictates  in  ac- 
cordance with  extent  of  discoloration  and 
number  of  soft  or  sprouted  kernels. 

HOME  PROJECTS 


Fig.  45.  —  A  sample  of 
barley  for  exhibit. 


i.  Grade  seed  barley  before  seeding.  Tf  a  large  quantity  of 
barley  is  on  hand,  which  after  seeding  time  will  be  used  for 
feed,  it  is  well  to  make  the  grading  very  close,  retaining  for  seed 
less  than  half  of  all  the  barley  put  through  the  grader.  When 
shriveled  and  shrunken  kernels,  which  are  always  low  in  vitality, 
are  eliminated  from  the  seed,  the  " running  out  process'7  will 


QO  BARLEY 

be  entirely  overcome.     A   fanning  mill  with  proper  sieves  is 
necessary  to  carry  out  this  project. 

2.  Treat  barley  with  formaldehyde  to  destroy  closed  smut. 

3.  Treat  barley  with  hot  water  to  destroy  loose  smut. 

4.  Pick  smutty  heads  from  one  tenth  of  an  acre  plot  as  soon 
as  they  appear,  and  save  the  remainder  for  the  increase  field. 

5.  Grow  an  acre  of  pedigree  barley.     Compare  the  yield  and 
quality  with  common  or  scrub  barley. 

6.  Find  the  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  barley. 

7.  Prepare  sheaf  samples  of  barley  for  show  purposes. 


CHAPTER  VI 
OATS 

THE  original  home  of  the  oat  plant  is  Asia,  where  it  was 
grown  at  an  early  date  as  an  animal  food  and  used  occa- 
sionally in  seasons  of  partial  failure  of  crops  as  a  human 
food.  Its  value  as  an  animal  food  and  the  ease  with  which 


Fig.  46.  —  A  field  of  pedigree  oats  ready  to  be  harvested. 

it  could  be  grown  caused  its  rapid  dissemination  through- 
out Europe  and  America.  It  is  regarded  as  an  excellent 
food  for  horses.  It  is  used  also  for  human  food,  as  oatmeal 
and  other  breakfast  foods.  Oat  straw  is  fed  to  stock  and 
is  extensively  used  for  bedding. 

91 


OATS 


Habits  of  Growth.  --  The  oat  belongs  to  the  grass  family. 
It  usually  grows  from  2  to  4  feet  high,  depending  upon  the 
variety  and  the  nature  of  the  soil  upon  which  it  is  grown. 
The  roots  of  the  plant  are  long  and  fibrous,  and  run  down 
to  a  depth  of  i  to  2  feet  on  rich  mellow  soils  in  which 
drainage  is  good.  The  plant  resembles  wheat  and  barley 
in  its  early  stages  of  growth,  but  later  it  branches  more 
profusely  and  is  more  leafy. 

Varieties.  --  There  are  numerous  so-called  varieties,  the 
names  of  which  have  been  applied  by  seedsmen  and  growers. 


Fig.  47.  —  Different  kinds  of  oat  panicles.  The  one  at  the  left  is  an  example  of  side 
panicles;  the  other  three  are  those  of  open  panicles.  The  one  on  the  extreme 
right  is  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  i. 

For  all  practical  purposes  they  can  be  classified  according 
to  color  and  time  of  maturity.  There  are  white,  yellow, 
black,  gray,  and  red  oats;  and  early,  medium,  and  late 
strains  in  each  variety.  Some  of  the  prominent  varieties 
grown  in  the  Northern  States  are  Swedish  Select,  Silver 
Mine,  Big  Four,  American  Banner,  White  Bonanza,  White 


VARIETIES 


93 


94  OATS 

Russian,  and  Champion.  The  Sixty  Day  or  Kherson  rep- 
resents one  of  the  best  examples  of  the  early  short-straw 
varieties.  This  variety  is  grown  extensively  on  the  low 
rich  grounds  where  the  later  maturing  and  long-straw 
varieties  are  likely  to  rust  and  lodge. 

The  agricultural  experiment  stations  of  America  and 
Europe  are  now  breeding  special  varieties  of  oats  that 
are  superior  in  yield  and  quality  to  the  common  oats  used 
in  past  years. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Conditions.  —  Oats  can  be  grown  under 
a  wide  variation  of  soil  and  climatic  conditions.  For  best 
production  a  cool  climate  and  a  rich  clay  loam  are  most 
favorable.  Oats  may  serve  as  a  crop  for  newly  cleared 
lands  or  they  can  be  grown  on  old  soils.  They  are  an 
excellent  nurse  crop  with  which  to  seed  down  fields  to  the 
various  grasses  and  clovers.  When  used  as  a  nurse  crop 
with  clover  only  about  i  bushel  of  seed  is  used  per  acre, 
otherwise  oats  are  usually  sown  at  the  rate  of  from  2  to  3 
bushels  per  acre. 

Harvesting  and  Threshing.  —  Oats  are  ready  for  the 
harvester  in  80  to  1 20  days  after  seeding  and  should  be  cut 
as  soon  as  the  leaves  and  stalks  have  turned  yellow.  When 
used  for  hay  they  should  be  cut  while  yet  green  but  after 
fully  headed.  If  used  for  hay  the  oats  are  cut  with  a  mower, 
and  in  curing  are  handled  like  our  common  grasses  or 
clovers.  When  harvested  for  the  grain,  oats  should  re- 
main in  the  shock  for  3  to  5  days  and  then  be  hauled  into 
the  barn  or  stacked.  Before  threshing  they  should  be  left 
in  the  barn  or  stack  for  2  to  3  weeks  to  go  through  the 
"  sweat,"  otherwise  they  will  heat  in  the  bin  after  thresh- 
ing. Threshing  directly  from  the  field  reduces  the  quality 
of  the  oats  and  should  be  condemned. 


OAT  RUST 


95 


Rotation.  —  Oats  should  be  grown  in  a  three-  or  four-year 
rotation  and  follow  corn,  peas,  potatoes,  or  root  crops. 
It  is  best  to  seed  down  to  clover  and  timothy  so  as  to  have 
a  hay  crop  following  the  oat  crop.  When  oats  are  grown 
continuously  on  the  same  field,  depletion  of  the  soil  soon 
follows. 

Diseases.  —  Smut  and  rust  are  the  two  principal  diseases 
affecting  oats,  and  often  a  fourth  to  a  half  of  the  entire 


Fig.  49.  —  Shocking  oats. 

crop  is  ruined  by  these  diseases.  Rust  may  be  controlled 
by  practicing  a  strict  rotation  of  crops  and  by  sowing  the 
early  maturing  varieties  early  in  the  season. 

Oat  Rust.  —  Oats  are  more  likely  to  rust  on  river  bottoms 
or  on  low  rich  soils  where  the  drainage  is  not  good.  Near 
lakes  and  rivers  where  the  country  is  subject  to  fogs  the 
development  of  the  rust  spores  is  greatly  facilitated.  The 


96 


OATS 


volunteer  crop  which  grows  in  the  fall  from  the  oats  shelled 
by  harvesting  is  usually  more  or  less  affected  and  these 
spores  affect  the  following  crop,  hence  the  necessity  of 
rotation.  Oats  that  are  immune  from  rust  can  be  bred 


for  certain  localities,   but  if  carried 


a  distance  and  put 
under  a  different 
environment,  they 
seem  to  lose  this  im- 
munity and  become 
as  susceptible  as  are 
other  varieties. 

Oat  Smut.— The 
oat  smut  is  a  dis- 
ease that  is  carried 
over  from  year  to 
year  through  the 
infected  seed,  and 
continues  to  in- 
crease until  over 
half  of  the  crop 
becomes  contami- 
nated. The  plant 
becomes  infected 
through  spores 
which  find  lodgment 
beneath  the  oat  hull 
during  the  flowering  period,  and  remain  there  until  the 
oat  is  sown  and  starts  to  sprout.  The  spore  then  sends 
up  tiny  threads  through  the  several  culms  of  the  plant 
and  blasts  the  heads  by  causing  a  mass  of  smutty  spores 
to  destroy  practically  all  oats  on  the  affected  plants. 
These  spores  are  wafted  off  when  the  oats  are  in 


Fig.  50.  —  Two  heads  of  oats  grown  from  the  same  lot 
.  of  seed.     The  head  on  the  right  was  grown  from 
seed  that  was  treated  to  prevent  smut ;  the  other 
was  grown  from  untreated  seed. 


REMEDY  FOR  OAT  SMUT  97 

blossom  and  find  lodgment  beneath  the  glumes  of  healthy 
plants. 

Remedy  for  Oat  Smut.  —  A  simple  remedy,  known  as 
the  formaldehyde  treatment,  will  effectually  eradicate  all 
smut.  By  making  up  a  solution  of  a  pint  of  formalde- 
hyde in  36  gallons  of  water  and  submerging  oats  that  are 
loosely  sacked  for  10  minutes  in  the  solution,  the  spores 
will  be  killed  and  no  smut  will  appear  in  the  resultant  crop. 
It  is  well  after  removing  the  sacks  from  the  solution  to 
empty  oats  on  the  threshing  floor  and  cover  them  for  a 


Fig.  51.  —  Drying  oats  on  a  platform  after  soaking  the  grain  in  formaldehyde. 

few  hours  with  canvas  or  blankets  to  allow  the  formalde- 
hyde fumes  to  act  effectually  on  the  smut  spores.  Oats  can 
usually  be  sown  with  a  drill  or  seeder  a  day  or  two  after  the 
treatment.  Where  a  farmer  has  a  large  acreage  of  oats  to 
sow  it  is  best  to  make  up  a  large  quantity  of  solution  and 
put  it  in  a  tank  or  several  barrels  so  as  to  treat  several  sacks 
of  seed  at  one  time.  Special  machines  which  make  the 
work  easier  are  now  on  the  market.  Any  arrangement  by 
which  each  individual  seed  is  brought  in  contact  with  the 
solution  and  held  there  for  a  short  period  of  time  is  effectual. 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. 7 


SCORING  QAT9 

Judge  a  sample  of  oat*,  using  the  direction* 
Copy  the  following  score  card  in  your  n 
blank   spaces  with  your  scores,    Below  it  write 
'      each  score.    Number  the  reasons  to  correspond  with 

I*  ints  on  the  score  carl 

OAT  SCORE  CARD 

NAME  AH»  NUMBEK  OP  SCOKKH 

NUMBEK  . ,  I  MTK  , , 


1 

i 

a 

4 

6 

i,  Tnicnewi  to  tyi              <ed 
charicterUtkf     ,    ,    ,    ,    J 

i.  Uniformity  in  ttea  and  ahape 

'.f   I'  rr.<  U           ,       ,       .       .      .       5 

4,     Ml-tnr.       •  ,tt,    0|]                                ,    iO 

6.  Weed  geedf  dirt,  and  other 
IKO  material       .    .    .  10 

'  '^imaged,  smutty,  or  musty 
kernels       15 

§.  Weight  per  bushel      ,    .    .  15 

IN  M.  nf;iK<     -f    M,..,I    t,,    I,,,  II        , 

,o     Viabilit) 

Total                                            ,00 

hii-'i  <  i  Mr.     poi     '  ORINO  OATS 

F.     All     l-«  fill  I         liouM     |>o  letl     the    (  h;n;i(  N  rr.tirs    of    their 

clas-.  .ni'i  •  .IN.  i-.       i  ,.i ,   I-,,  i  <  in.  i   <  ..i,  in, inn;'  ,i  fail  uunpk 
of  tic  ri.iin     c  mini  oaf  thi  i.rifM  1 1  Into  thr<  <  grade ,    in  tin- 


SCORING  OATS  99 

grade  badly  off  type  cut  .1  of  a  point  for  each  kernel.  In  the 
next  grade  cut  .1  of  a  point  for  two  kernels,  and  in  the  best 
grade  no  cut  is  made. 

2.  Kernels  should  be  of  the  same  size  and  shape  within  the 
limits  of  the  class  and  variety.     Proceed  as  in  No.  i. 

3.  White  oats  should  be  white;   yellow  oats,  bright  yellow; 
black  oats,  glistening  black.     Proceed  as  in  No.  i. 

4.  The  sample  should  be  pure  oats.     Take  100  kernels  con- 
stituting a  fair  sample,  count  out  the  foreign  grains.     For  each 
foreign  kernel  cut  .5  of  a  point. 

5.  All  the  kernels  of  the  sample  should  be  large  and  plump 
for  the  variety.     Proceed  as  in  No.  i. 

6.  The  sample  should  be  free  from  dirt  and  weed  seeds. 
Cut  sample  .5  of  a  point  for  each  per  cent  of  foul  material. 

7.  The  sample  should  be  free  from  smutty,  musty,  bin- 
burned,  shelled,  or  damaged  kernels,  and  should  have  a  sweet 
grain  odor.     Determine  the  per  cent  of  damaged,  smutty,  or 
bin-burned  kernels,  and  cut  .5  of  a  point  for  each  per  cent. 
Cut  sample  for  bad  odor  from  i  to  10  points. 

8.  The  standard  weight  is  32  pounds  per  measured  bushel. 
Cut  i  point  for  each  pound  below  32  pounds. 

9.  The  average  per  cent  of  meat  for  American  oats  is  70. 
Examine  the  thickness  of  hull  and  length  of  tip,  and  cut  accord- 
ing to  judgment. 

10.   Oats  should  germinate  100  per  cent.     Cut  .5  of  a  point  for 
each  per  cent  germination  below  100. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  the  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of  oats  in  your  state? 

2.  What  varieties  of  oats  are  grown  in  your  locality? 

3.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  oats? 

4.  When  are  oats  usually  sown  in  your  locality?     When 
harvested  ? 

5.  What  uses  are  made  of  oat  straw ?     Of  the  grain? 


100 


OATS 


Fig.   52.  —  A   sample  of 
oats  for  exhibition. 


HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Treat   seed   oats   for   prevention  of 
smut,  by  use  of  formaldehyde,  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner. 

Fill  an  empty  kerosene  barrel  with 
water  to  within  a  foot  of  the  top.  Add 
to  this  water  one  pint  of  40  per  cent 
formaldehyde  solution,  stirring  constantly. 
Place  oats  in  burlap  sacks  and  suspend 
each  sack  in  the  formaldehyde  solution, 
completely  immersing  the  sack  for  ten 
minutes.  Remove  and  spread  out  on 
barn  floor  to  dry. 

2.  Grade  oats  for  seeding  purposes. 

3.  Select  sheaf  samples  for  show  pur- 
poses. 

4.  Select   threshed   samples   for    show 
purposes. 

5.  Grow  an  acre  of  pedigree  oats  and 
compare  the  yield  with  that  of  an  acre 
of  common  oats. 

6.  Determine    the    cost    of    producing 
an  acre  of  oats.     Keep  a  record  of  each 
item  of  the  cost. 


CHAPTER  VII 
RYE 

RYE  belongs  to  the  grass  family  and  is  a  near  relative  of 
wheat.  It  is  divided  into  two  main  classes  known  as 
spring  rye  and  winter  rye,  each  of  which  is  divided  into 
numerous  so-called  varieties. 

Habits  of  Growth.  —  Spring  rye  is  sown  in  the  spring 
and  is  harvested  from  75  to  100  days  after  sowing.  It  does 
not  grow  so  rank  as  the  fall  or  winter  rye  and  gives  a  smaller 
yield,  in  consequence  of  which  it  has  not  become  popular. 
The  principal  rye  crop  of  America  and  Europe  is  winter 
rye  and  this  discussion  is  confined  to  that  crop. 

The  growth  of  rye  is  similar  to  that  of  wheat,  but  it 
stools  more  heavily  and  withstands  drought  better.  It  is 
a  taller  plant  and  will  produce  a  crop  on  land  that  is  too  low 
in  fertility  to  produce  good  wheat.  It  is  bearded  but  not 
so  heavily  as  to  make  the  beards  obnoxious.  The  straw  is 
clean  and  strong,  and  it  seldom  lodges  unless  put  on  very 
rich  mucky  soils  and  sown  too  thickly.  It  has  perfect 
flowers  and  most  of  them  are  self -fertilized.  Its  blossoms 
are  more  open  than  those  of  most  small  grains  and  con- 
siderable crossing  may  occur. 

Seed  Beds.  —  While  fair  crops  of  rye  can  be  secured  on 
soils  too  low  in  fertility  for  other  cereals,  it  responds  quickly 
to  good  treatment  on  better  grades  of  soil.  It  may  be 
sown  on  sod  land  that  has  grown  a  crop  of  hay,  or  it  may 
follow  potatoes,  corn,  or  peas  to  advantage. 


102  RYE 

The  group  a1  should  be  prepared  by  plowing  immediately 
after  the  above-named  crops  have  been  removed.  The 
drag  should  follow  the  plow  immediately.  If  ground  is 
plowed  and  harrowed  in  July  or  August,  in  northern  lati- 
tudes it  can  lie  until  September  before  sowing  the  seed. 
Just  before  seeding,  the  disk  or  other  cultivator  should  be 
run  over  the  ground.  The  seed  is  sown  with  a  drill  or  broad- 
cast seeder,  using  from  ii  to  2  bushels  of  seed  per  acre. 


Fig-  53-  —  Harrowing,  rolling,  and  seeding  a  rye  field. 

The  smaller  amount  of  seed  should  be  sown  on  the  richer 
grades  of  soils  as  the  rye  stools  more  strongly  on  land  high 
in  fertility.  The  seed  can  be  tested  by  the  method  given  in 
Chapter  II.  (See  page  30.) 

If  the  ground  has  been  recently  plowed  and  the  land  is 
loose  and  dry,  rolling,  after  seeding,  will  assist  germination, 
as  through  this  process  the  soil  particles  are  brought  in 
close  contact  with  each  individual  seed.  The  fine-tooth 
harrow  should  be  run  over  the  ground  once  after  rolling  or 
before  sowing  the  seed  if  rolling  is  not  done.  If  sowing  is 


HARVESTING  AND   THRESHING 


103 


done  early  in  September,  sufficient  growth  will  be  obtained 
for  good  fall  and  winter  pasture.  Rye  can  be  pastured 
through  the  fall,  winter,  and  spring  without  apparent  in- 
jury to  the  crop.  It  is  one  of  the  very  best  crops  with 
which  to  seed  grasses  and  clovers.  The  grass  seed  can  be 
sown  with  a  seeder  attachment 
to  the  drill  at  the  same  time 
that  the  rye  is  seeded  in  the  fall, 
and  the  clover  seeding  can  be 
done  the  following  spring. 

Harvesting  and  Threshing.  - 
Rye  is  harvested  in  the  same 
way  as  other  small  grains  and 
is  shocked  and  later  hauled  to 
the  barns  for  storage  or  put  in 
large  stacks  to  await  threshing. 
When  stacked  or  put  in  barns 
it  should  be  left  three  or  four 
weeks  before  threshing  in  order 
that  it  may  go  through  the 
sweat,  which  is  common  to  all 
grains  and  forage  plants  after 
harvesting.  If  threshed  while 
in  the  sweat,  the  straw  is  tough 
and  the  grain  moist  and  unfit 

for    grinding.         Rye     is     USUally      Fig.  54.  —  A  well-developed  plant  of 
-          T       i     TI  .  ,      pedigree  fall  rye  from  a  single  seed. 

threshed   like  other  gram,   and 

is  then  put  in  bins  for  storage.      If  threshed  from  the 
field  or  from  stacks  before  going  through  the  sweat,  it 
should  be  stored  in  shallow  bins  and  shoveled  over  fre- 
quently until  thoroughly  dry. 
Uses.  —  Rye  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  flour.     A 


104 

considerable  amount  is  used  also  for  distilling  purposes. 
The  price  on  the  general  market  is  usually  somewhat  lower 
than  for  wheat.  Rye  flour  makes  a  bread  darker  in  color 
and  firmer  in  texture  than  that  made  from  wheat.  Rye 
bread  when  well  made  is  very  palatable  and  is  considered 
as  nourishing  as  that  made  from  wheat.  A  small  quantity 
of  wheat  flour  is  frequently  mixed  with  rye  flour  which 
makes  kneading  easier,  whitens  the  bread,  and  improves 
its  flavor.  The  flavor  of  rye  bread  is  also  modified  by 
kneading  a  sprinkling  of  caraway  seed  in  the  dough. 

Rye  is  fed  to  farm  animals  and  makes  a  fair  feed  when 
mixed  with  corn  or  other  grains.  If  fed  alone  as  a  grain 
ration  to  cows,  it  gives  an  undesirable  flavor  to  the  milk. 
It  is  occasionally  used  for  hay  and  should  then  be  cut  at 
the  heading  stage.  The  bran  and  shorts  from  rye  can  be 
mixed  with  wheat  bran  and  fed  to  good  advantage. 

Rye  as  a  Pasture  or  Cover  Crop.  —  Rye  is  considered 
excellent  as  a  pasture  or  cover  crop.  When  rye  is  grown 
merely  as  a  pasture  or  cover  crop,  it  is  well  to  sow  about 
thirty  pounds  of  fall  vetch  seed  per  acre  with  the  rye. 
The  vetch  is  a  strong  nitrogen  gatherer  and  is  relished  by 
all  farm  animals.  This  practice  enables  the  farmer  to 
add  nitrogen  and  humus  to  the  soil  by  the  growing  of  the 
vetch,  and  to  improve  the  feeding  value  of  the  pasture 
crop.  The  rye  and  vetch  can  be  turned  under  in  the 
spring,  and  corn,  potatoes,  or  buckwheat  grown  on  the 
same  ground.  If  desired  for  hay,  the  mixture  should 
be  left  until  the  vetch  is  in  blossom,  when  both  can  be  cut 
and  made  into  hay.  The  rye  acts  as  a  support  for  the  vetch 
and  keeps  it  from  the  ground  during  the  growing  period. 
Difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced  in  curing  the  hay,  but 
it  can  be  readily  cured  in  good  weather. 


DISEASES 


105 


Rye  straw  is  used  extensively  as  packing  material  and 
for  the  manufacture  of  straw  articles.  It  is  also  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper  and  as  stuffing  for  horse  collars. 
When  it  is  put  on  the  market  for  these  purposes  it  is  either 
hand  threshed  or  run  into  special  machinery  which  threshes 
out  the  heads  and  leaves  the  straw  inanuncrushed  condition. 


Fig-  55-  —  Excellence  of  straw  in  an  average  rye  field. 

Diseases.  —  The  disease  most  prevalent  in  rye  is  ergot. 
This  disease  makes  its  appearance  on  several  of  our 
grasses,  but  is  most  common  on  rye.  When  rye  is  thus 
affected  jt  should  not  be  fed  to  stock.  Ergot  is  a  poison 
to  animals  and  may  cause  serious  sickness  or  death.  It 
appears  on  the  spike  as  one  or  several  enlarged  black  or 
purple  kernels  and  grows  rapidly,  reaching  a  length  of  a 
half  inch  and  over.  Like  other  spore  diseases  after  reach- 
ing a  certain  stage  of  growth,  fine  dust-like  material  is 
given  off  which  infects  the  remainder  of  the  crop. 

Change  of  seed  and  rotation  of  crops  is  recommended 


io6 


RYE 


whenever  ergot  is  found.     The  grain  secured  from  fields 
where  ergot  is  noticeable  should  be  thoroughly  screened 

and  graded  before  being  used  for 
feed  or  flour.  Rye  is  subject  to 
rust,  but  not  to  the  same  extent 
as  wheat  and  oats.  Little,  if 
any,  injury  is  experienced  from 
insect  enemies. 

Rotation.  —  A  rotation  in 
which  rye  is  grown  one  year  out 
of  four  is  preferable.  The  rye 
can  follow  peas,  potatoes,  corn, 
or  any  crop  that  is  grown  on 
sod.  Grasses  and  clovers  can 
be  seeded  with  the  rye  crop  to 
good  advantage  and  hay  can  be 
cut  for  two  succeeding  years. 

EXERCISES 


Fig.  56.  —  Rye  head  infected  with 
ergot. 


i.  Score  samples  of  rye.  The 
score  card  for  rye  is  the  same 
as  that  used  for  wheat  and  the  directions  for  scoring  rye  are 
identical  with  those  for  wheat.  (See  pages  76-78.) 

2.  Outline  the  method  of  growing  rye  in  your  locality. 
Does  the  text  suggest  any  means  by  which  the  local  method 
may  be  improved? 

HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Select  a  sheaf  of  rye  and  threshed  samples  for  show  pur- 
poses. 

2.  Grow  an   acre  of   select   rye.     Compare  the  yield  and 
quality  with  that  of  an  acre  of  common  rye. 

3.  Find  the  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  rye. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
BUCKWHEAT 

BUCKWHEAT  is  not  a  true  cereal  but  is  usually  classified 
as  such  by  grain  men.  The  name  is  of  German  origin  and 
is  probably  a  corruption  of  the  German  buchweizen  which 
means  beechwheat.  The  shape  of  the  kernel  of  buck- 
wheat resembles  the  beechnut,  and  the  starch  within  the 
kernel  resembles  wheat  starch,  hence  the  name.  Buck- 
wheat belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  well-known  bind- 
weed, smartweed,  knotweed,  sorrel,  and  yellow  dock.  It 
may  have  been  developed  from  one  of  the  bindweeds, 
sometimes  called  wild  buckwheat. 

Varieties. — There  are  three  distinct  varieties  :  common 
buckwheat,  notch-seeded  buckwheat,  and  Siberian  or 
Tartary  buckwheat.  The  common  buckwheat  is  the  one 
of  greatest  importance.  To  this  species  belong  the  Silver 
Hull,  the  Japanese,  and  the  common  gray  varieties..  These 
are  grown  most  extensively  in  this  country.  The  Silver 
Hull  seems  to  be  most  popular  with  millers,  some  of  whom 
claim  that  it  makes  more  and  better  flour  than  the  other 
varieties.  Some  growers  contend  that  the  Japanese  is  a 
heavier  yielder  and  will  stand  more  sunshine  and  hot 
weather  without  injury  than  will  the  Silver  Hull. 

Habits  of  Growth.  —  The  buckwheat  seed  puts  forth  but 
a  single  erect  shoot  which  branches  treelike  above  the 
ground  and  grows  to  a  height  of  three  feet.  The  root 

107 


108  BUCKWHEAT 

growth  is  not  extensive  and  consists  of  a  main  root  with 
sufficient  branches  to  hold  the  plant  firmly  in  the  ground 
and  to  secure  adequate  moisture  and  nourishment  for  its 


m 

**  ± 


*t 

*  % 

0 


» 


Fig.  57-  —  Silver  Hull  buckwheat  on  left ;  Japanese  buckwheat  on  right. 

existence.  It  grows  and  gives  returns  on  soil  too  poor  for 
the  growing  of  ordinary  crops.  Buckwheat  responds  readily 
to  good  treatment  and  by  proper  preparation  of  the  seed 
bed  and  the  use  of  manure  the  yield  can  be  greatly  in- 
creased. 

Preparation  of  Seed  Bed. --The  land  on  which  buck- 
wheat is  grown  is  usually  plowed  late  in  the  spring,  a  few 
days  before  sowing.  This  method  is  not  the  best  practice, 
however,  as  the  soil  should  have  ample  time  to  settle 
before  seeding.  It  is  better  to  plow  early  in  the  spring 
and  to  run  a  fine-tooth  harrow  over  the  field  at  weekly 
intervals  until  seeding.  Where  late  plowing  is  resorted 
to  the  roller  and  fine-tooth  harrow  should  be  used  imme- 
diately after  plowing,  and  again,  after  seeding  for  the 
purpose  of  compacting  the  soil,  restoring  capillary  action 
through  the  soil,  and  pressing  the  soil  particles  closely 
around  the  seed  to  facilitate  sprouting. 


HARVESTING  AND   THRESHING 


109 


Sowing  the  Seed.  —  In  northern  latitudes  the  seed  should 
be  sown  from  May  20  to  July  i  and  at  the  rate  of  3  pecks 
of  Silver  Hull  or  4  pecks  of  the  Japanese  variety  per  acre. 
The  seeds  of  the  Japanese  are  larger,  hence  a  heavier  seed- 
ing is  necessary  to  secure  the  same  number  of  plants  per 
acre.  The  late  sowing  of  the  buckwheat  is  done  in  order 
to  carry  the  blossoming  period  beyond  the  hot  winds  and 
sunshine  of  July  which  are  disastrous  to  the  crop  at  the 
blossoming  stage.  Blossoms  appear  when  the  plant  is 
partially  grown  and  continue  until  the  time  of  harvest. 


Fig.  58.  —  A  field  of  Silver  Hull  buckwheat  in  blossom. 

Much  of  the  green  buckwheat  ripens  while  the  buckwheat 
is  in  the  shock. 

Harvesting  and  Threshing.  —  Buckwheat  can  be 
harvested  with  the  binder  but  when  so  cut  it  should  not 
be  bound  but  laid  off  in  unbound  sheaves.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  old-fashioned  self-rake  reaper  can  be  used  to 


no  BUCKWHEAT 

advantage.  After  it  has  lain  in  the  swath  for  a  few  days 
it  can  be  bound  loosely  and  set  up  in  shocks.  Usually  it 
is  not  stored  away  in  barns  to  go  through  the  sweat  but 
is  hauled  directly  from  the  field  to  the  threshing  machine. 
An  ordinary  grain  thresher  is  used,  but  it  is  supplied 
with  blank  concaves  or  concaves  with  all  but  two  or  three 
of  the  teeth  removed,  so  that  the  buckwheat  will  not  be 
hulled  or  damaged.  After  threshing,  buckwheat  should  be 
stored  in  bins  where  it  can  be  shoveled  over  to  facilitate 
drying.  Only  good  dry  buckwheat  can  be  used  for  flour. 

Enemies.  —  Buckwheat  is  usually  free  from  insects 
and  disease  enemies.  It  is  a  great  weed  destroyer  and 
is  known  as  one  of  our  cleaning  crops.  It  grows  rapidly, 
and  the  many  broad  leaves  shut  out  the  sunlight,  and 
make  it  almost  impossible  for  weeds  to  thrive  in  the 
same  field. 

Uses.  —  Buckwheat  is  used  in  making  pancake  flour  for 
human  consumption  and  as  a  ground  feed  for  farm  ani- 
mals. The  straw  is  of  little  value  except  for  bedding. 
Buckwheat  is  a  prolific  flowering  plant  and  bees  feed  greedily 
upon  it.  The  honey  made  from  it  is  inferior  to  that  made 
from  white  clover  and  is  darker  in  color. 

Rotation.  —  Little  attention  is  paid  to  putting  buckwheat 
in  any  definite  rotation.  It  is  usually  sown  on  lands  where 
other  crops  have  been  destroyed.  Occasionally  it  is  used 
merely  as  a  cleaning  crop  on  weedy  lands  or  grown  on  hard 
soils  and  turned  under  to  add  humus  to  the  soil. 

EXERCISES 

i.  Judge  samples  of  buckwheat.  The  score  card  and  direc- 
tions given  for  wheat  may  be  used  in  judging  buckwheat.  (See 
pages  76-78.) 


HOME   PROJECTS  in 

2.  If  Silver  Hull  buckwheat  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  40  pounds 
per  acre,  how  many  bushels  of  seed  will  it  take  to  sow  40  acres 
of  land?     Buckwheat  is  estimated  at  48  pounds  per  bushel. 

3.  If  the  buckwheat  yields  at  the  rate  of  fourteen  bushels 
per  acre  and  sells  at  $1.25  per  hundredweight,  how  much  will 
be  received  for  the  crop? 

4.  If,  in  milling  buckwheat,  one  half  of  the  total  weight  is 
flour,  how  much  flour  can  be  secured  from    the  buckwheat 
grown  from  the  above  field? 

HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Sow  Silver  Hull  and   Japanese   buckwheat  in  separate 
plots  to  determine  yield  and  desirability  of  each. 

2.  Grow  buckwheat  on  land  in  which  corn  has  been  killed 
by  flood  or  cutworms. 

3.  Grow  buckwheat  on  newly  cleared  lands  for  the  purpose 
of  subduing  the  soil. 

4.  Grow  a  small  plot  of  Silver  Hull  buckwheat  for  making 
buckwheat  flour. 

5.  Grow  both  Japanese  and  Silver  Hull  buckwheat  for  seed. 


CHAPTER   IX 
GRAIN   BREEDING 

GRAIN  improvement  may  be  brought  about  through 
selection  and  crossing.  These  methods  are  applied  to  the 
improvement  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  and 
other  grains ;  also  to  peas,  beans,  and  forage  plants. 

Selection  Method.  —  Foundation  stock  from  the  best- 
known  varieties  of  grain  grown  is  first  secured.  These 
varieties  are  sown  in  one-twentieth  acre  plots  and  the 
plants  are  studied  during  the  growing  period.  The  best 
heads  from  100  or  more  plants  are  selected  when  mature, 
the  kernels  graded,  and  the  heavy  plump  ones  retained. 
These  select  kernels  are  sown  the  following  year  and 
the  grains  are  again  graded  as  before.  By  pursuing  this 
method  of  selecting,  the  best  grains  for  seed,  oats,  wheat, 
barley,  and  other  small  grains  are  greatly  improved  in 
quality  and  yield  per  acre. 

Centgener  Method.  —  A  better  method  of  breeding 
known  as  the  centgener  method  is  now  used  quite  exten- 
sively by  plant  breeders.  By  this  system  a  thousand 
kernels  of  the  grain  desired  for  foundation  stock  are  used, 
and  the  individual  kernels  are  planted  4  inches  apart 
in  the  foundation  or  "  mother  "  bed.  Border  rows  are 
grown  around  the  outside  of  the  bed  which  are  later  dis- 
carded. Only  the  plants  growing  under  uniform  conditions 
inside  of  the  border  rows  are  retained.  These  plants  are 


CENTGENER  METHOD  113 

studied  during  the  growing  period  and  those  showing  supe- 
rior qualities  are  marked  by  placing  a  stick  or  a  wire  rod 
beside  each.  Twenty  plants  are  usually  selected  from 
each  bed.  The  heads  are  clipped  from  these  plants  and 
put  into  separate  envelopes.  The  twenty  envelopes  each 
containing  the  progeny  of  individual  plants  are  weighed 
separately,  and  the  ten  having  the  highest  weight  are  re- 
tained, the  lighter  ones  being  discarded. 

The  second  year  the  seeds  in  each  of  the  ten  selected 
envelopes  are  sown  an  equal  distance  apart  in  little  square 
plots,  known  as  centgener  beds.  A  study  of  the  plants  is 
made  during  the  growing  period  and  the  best  heads  from 
at  least  ten  of  the  best  plants  are  secured.  These  heads 
are  placed  in  envelopes,  the  shrunken  kernels  being  dis- 
carded, since  only  the  best  seeds  are  to  be  used  for  the 
following  year. 

The  third  year  the  process  of  the  second  year  is  repeated, 
and  in  the  fourth  year  the  entire  yield  of  each  of  the  ten 


Fig-  59-  —  Two  centgeners  of  wheat. 
M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. 8 


IT4 


GRAIN  BREEDING 


centgener  plots  is 
compared  with  that 
of  each  of  the  other 
nine,  and  the  grain 
from  the  four  plots 
in  the  test  giving 
greatest  yields  is  re- 
tained for  increase 
plots. 

In  the  fourth  year 
sufficient  seed  is  se- 
cured from  the 
centgener  plots  to  sow  broadcast  at  least  one  square  rod 
of  each  variety,  after  casting  out  light  seed.  These  are 
called  increase  plots.  From  the  increase  plots  sufficient 
seed  is  produced  to  sow  a  tenth  of  an  acre  from  which  the 
yield  of  grain  is  sufficient  to  seed  one  acre.  An  accurate 
record  having  been  kept  of  this  process  for  six  successive 
years,  the  variety  becomes  a  pedigreed  variety. 

Head-to-row  Method.  —  This  method  is  used  extensively 
by  plant  improvers,  and  enables  the  operator  to  select  in 


Fig.  60.  —  Planting  with  a  centgener  machine. 


Fig.  61.  —  Increase  plots  of  different  grains.     Rows  from  single  heads  at  extreme  right. 


HEAD-TO-ROW   METHOD  115 

the  shortest  possible  time  various  plants  that  possess  high 
yielding  power  and  other  desirable  characteristics.  It  is 
a  quick  method  of  grain  breeding  by  selection. 

Land  that  is  uniform  in  fertility  must  be  used  for  the 
selection  beds.  The  grain  plants  from  which  the  heads  are 
taken  must  be  selected  from  fields  or  mother  beds  where 


Fig.  62.  —  Head-to-row  method  of  plant  breeding.     One  head  of  wheat  is  planted  in 

each  row. 

several  thousand  plants  are  grown  under  uniform  conditions. 
Plants  should  not  be  selected  from  the  edge  of  a  field 
or  some  favored  spot.  From  ten  to  a  hundred  plants 
especially  noticeable  for  their  desirable  characteristics  are 
selected  from  the  various  grain  fields  or  plots,  and  the 
most  desirable  heads  taken  from  each.  These  heads  are 
shelled  separately,  placed  in  bottles  or  envelopes,  num- 
bered, and  held  until  time  for  planting.  The  best  progeny 
of  a  single  seed  from  the  previous  year  is  thus  retained. 


n6  GRAIN   BREEDING 

The  same  number  of  seeds  from  each  of  the  different 
heads  are  selected  for  planting  each  individual  row.  The 
seeds  are  planted  the  same  distance  apart  in  the  row  and 
the  same  space  is  left  between  the  individual  rows. 


Fig.  63.  —  Crossing  small  grains. 

This  system  of  planting  admits  of  easy  comparison  of 
individual  plants  of  the  same  variety  or  of  different  varie- 
ties by  simply  comparing  the  rows. 

The  entire  plot  receives  the  same  care  and  attention  and 
is  finally  harvested,  each  row  separately. 

The  rows  are  threshed  and  the  yields  from  the  individual 
rows  determined.  A  few  of  the  high  yielding  rows  of  the 
best  quality  are  retained  for  increase  plots,  and  the  remain- 
der cast  out.  The  following  year  a  comparative  test  for 
yield  and  desirable  characteristics  is  made  between  the 
increase  plots,  and  only  those  plots  of  grain  that  come  up 
to  the  desired  standard  are  retained  for  a  field  test. 

The  object  of  the  breeder  is  to  isolate  single  individual 
plants  that  have  in  them  the  power  of  perpetuating  their 


CROSSING   METHOD  117 

special  characteristics  of  yield,  quality,  and  vigor  far  in 
excess  of  other  plants  growing  under  similar  conditions. 

Crossing  Method.  --The  crossing  of  plants  consists  in 
removing  the  stamens  of  the  flower  before  they  have  fully 
matured,  leaving  the  ovary  to  be  fertilized  by  pollen  taken 
from  some  other  plant  of  the  same  species.  Barley,  wheat, 
and  oats  are  "  close  fertilized  "  plants;  that  is,  the  stamens 
and  pistils  are  borne  on  the  same  flower,  which  are  so  closely 
inclosed  in  its  coverings  that  practically  no  pollen  from 
other  plants  can  reach  the  ovary  of  the  flower.  Hence, 
the  same  variety  will  breed  true  unless  a  cross  is  made  by 
artificial  means. 

To  obtain  new  strains  of  grains  by  crossing  them,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  remove  the  stamens  of  the  flower 


Fig.  64.  —  Open  flowers  of  wheat  and  oats,  showing  reproductive  organs. 

before  they  are  far  enough  advanced  to  shed  their  pollen, 
and  a  few  days  later  to  introduce  pollen  from  another  plant. 


n8 


GRAIN   BREEDING 


This  requires  care  and  skill,  as  it  is  easy  to  injure  the  flower 
sufficiently  to  destroy  its  fertilization. 

After  the  stamens  are  removed  and  the  pollen  from  some 
other  plant  is  introduced,  the  flower  is  again  closed  and 
covered  with  thin  tissue  paper  to  allow  light  to  penetrate 
but  to  prevent  the  pollen  of  any  other  plant  from  entering. 


Fig.  65. 


Usually  all  except  a  small  number  of  the  flowers  on  the 
spike  are  removed,  for  more  satisfactory  results  can  be 
obtained  when  only  a  few  of  the  flowers  are  used. 

By  this  method  of  grain  breeding,  valuable  new  strains 
may  be  produced,  but  up  to  the  present  time  it  has  not 
given  as  satisfactory  results  as  the  selection  method. 
Crossing  causes  mixture  of  characters,  many  of  which  may 
be  undesirable.  Hence  after  crossing,  it  takes  several 
years  of  straight  selection  to  establish  a  desirable  combina- 
tion of  characters. 


DISSEMINATION   OF   GRAINS  119 

Dissemination  of  Improved  Grains.  —  After  a  grain  is 
improved  it  is  important  to  have  the  seed  as  widely  dis- 
seminated as  possible  so  as  to  test  its  value  under  varying 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 

The  aim  of  the  grower  of  pedigree  seeds  is  to  get  the 
entire  community  in  which  he  resides  interested  in  growing 
these  grains  instead  of  the  common  varieties.  When  their 
merits  are  known  pedigree  grains  soon  displace  the  numer- 
ous common  varieties. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Why  must  the  crossing  of  pollen  in  small  grains  be  done 
by  hand  ? 

2.  How  does  this  process  differ  from  crossing  in  corn? 

3.  Why  do  crossed  varieties  tend  to  break  up  into  several 
varieties  ? 

4.  How  does  the  grain  breeder  prevent  this  breaking  up  of 
strains  ? 

5.  Which  are  most  likely  to  come  true  to  type,  crossed  or 
selected  varieties?     Why? 

HOME  PROJECT 

On  the  home  farm  carry  on  a  plot  for  the  improvement  of 
some  grain  or  other  useful  plant,  following  directions  given  in 
this  chapter. 


CHAPTER   X 

LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 

LEGUMINOUS  plants  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by 
adding  nitrogen  to  it.  If  the  roots  of  a  legume  are  removed 
from  the  ground  and  closely  examined,  small  swellings,  or 
nodules,  may  be  seen  on  them.  In  these  nodules  are  bac- 
teria that  have  the  power  of  taking  nitrogen  from  the  air 
and  of  supplying  it  to  the  nodule-bearing  plants.  When 
the  roots  and  nodules  finally  decay,  the  nitrogen  that  has 
been  taken  from  the  air  is  available  for  other  crops  that 
follow  a  leguminous  crop.  The  most  common  legumes  are 
the  clovers,  alfalfa,  peas,  field  beans,  soy  beans,  cowpeas, 
and  vetches. 

CLOVERS 

The  clovers  are  the  most  important  group  of  legumi- 
nous plants.  They  not  only  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  but 
also  furnish  a  large  amount  of  humus.  They  are  great 
weed  destroyers  and  are  widely  known  as  cleaning  crops. 

Common  Red  Clover.  —  The  common  red  or  June  clover 
is  the  most  generally  grown  of  all  clovers,  and  is  of  great 
importance  to  farmers  living  in  the  Northern  States  and 
Canada.  It  is  said  to  be  a  biennial,  the  seed  being  sown 
one  year  and  the  crop  maturing  the  following  year.  Under 
certain  favorable  conditions  due  either  to  the  absence  of 
severe  freezing  or  to  self-seeding  the  common  red  clover 


CLOVERS 


121 


may  adopt  a  perennial  character  and  produce  crops  for 
several  consecutive  years  without  reseeding. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  —  Common  red  clover  is  usually  sown 
in  the  spring  with  oats,  barley,  or  spring  wheat  as  a  nurse 
crop,  and  at  the  rate  of  5  to  6 
quarts  of  clover  seed  per  acre  with 
one  and  a  half  bushels  of  grain. 
It  should  follow  corn  or  some 
cultivated  crop  which  has  been 
grown  on  sod  land.  In  places 
where  it  is  difficult  to  get  a  catch 
of  clover  with  a  nurse  crop,  a 
cultivation  for  the  killing  of 
weeds  from  early  spring  to  June 
15  is  practiced  and  the  clover 
seed  then  sown  without  a  nurse 
crop.  If  weeds  appear,  they  are 
clipped  back  by  running  a  mower 
over  the  field.  The  cutter  bar 
of  the  mower  should  be  run  high, 
and  the  clippings  if  not  too 
heavy  should  be  left  on  the  field 
for  a  mulch;  if  heavy,  they  should 
be  raked  off  and  burned.  Under 
favorable  conditions  one  cutting  Fig.  66.  —  common  red  clover. 
of  hay  or  a  good  pasture  can  be  secured  the  first  year.  If 
too  wet,  the  fields  should  not  be  pastured.  Clover  is  usually 
sown  in  mixture  with  timothy.  When  thus  sown,  4  quarts  of 
clover  seed  and  3  quarts  of  timothy  seed  are  used  per  acre. 
If  sown  as  a  mixture,  two  cuttings  of  clover  can  be  secured 
the  year  following  seeding,  the  first  of  which  is  suitable  for 
hay  and  the  second  either  for  hay  or  seed. 


122  LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 

Cutting  Stage.  —  Clover  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  it  is 
in  full  bloom,  and  some  of  the  early  blossoms  are  turning 
brown.  It  should  not  be  cut  for  seed  until  nearly  all  the 
heads  are  turned  brown.  If  the  second  cutting  is  to  be 
used  for  seed,  it  is  well  to  take  the  first  cutting  of  hay  when 
only  a  few  plants  have  come  fully  into  blossom.  For  seed, 
the  second  cutting  is  preferable,  as  all  the  plants  come  into 
blossom  uniformly,  and  bees  and  other  insects  that  aid  in 
pollination  are  more  abundant  at  that  time. 

Cutting  and  Curing  the  Hay.  —  Clover  should  be  cut 
when  free  from  dew  and  rain,  and  left  in  the  swath  for  a  day 
to  wilt.  It  may  then  be  stirred  with  the  tedder  and  after 
a  few  hours  drying,  raked  into  windrows,  and  put  into 
medium-sized  cocks.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  cure 
the  hay  without  losing  the  leaves,  which  cannot  be  done  if 
the  clover  is  allowed  to  dry  too  long  in  the  hot  sun.  The 
use  of  hay  caps  greatly  facilitates  curing.  The  evaporation 


Fig.  67.  —  Curing  clover.    Note  the  size  of  the  bunches. 

of  moisture  goes  on  rapidly  while  in  the  cock  and  if  left 
for  two  or  three  days,  the  hay  will  usually  be  well  cured. 
If  all  clover  hay  was  carefully  cured  so  that  it  would  not 


CUTTING   FOR   SEED  123 

heat  in  the  mow,  much  of  the  prejudice  now  prevalent 
against  clover  for  horses  would  not  exist.     The  high  protein 


Fig.  68.  —  A  huller,  used  for  separating  the  seed  from  clover. 

content  of  clover  makes  it  a  valuable  hay  for  dairy  cows, 
sheep,  and  young  stock. 

Cutting  for  Seed.  —  As  soon  as  the  first  blossoms  turn 
brown,  pick  a  dozen  average  heads,  rub  out  in  the  hand, 
and  count  the  seeds.  The  number  of  bushels  of  seed  that 
can  be  secured  per  acre  where  the  stand  is  fair,  may  be  esti- 
mated by  the  average  amount  of  seed  found  in  a  dozen  or 
more  heads.  For  each  ten  seeds  found  in  each  head,  the  field 
will  yield  one  bushel  per  acre.  For  example,  if  the  average 
is  twenty  seeds  to  each  head,  the  yield  will  be  two  bushels 
per  acre  ;  if  forty,  four  bushels  per  acre.  This  estimate  is 
only  approximate,  as  other  factors,  such  as  thickness  of 
stand  and  thoroughness  of  hulling,  have  to  be  considered. 
When  clover  is  harvested  for  seed  a  buncher  attachment  is 
used  on  the  mower  to  bunch  the  clover  and  carry  it  out  of 
the  way  of  the  next  round  of  the  mower. 


124* 


LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 


CLOVER  125 

After  the  clover  has  been  left  for  three  or  four  days  or 
until  thoroughly  dry,  it  can  be  hauled  direct  to  the  huller,  or 
stored  or  stacked,  and  hulled  later  in  the  season.  The  high 
price  usually  paid  for  good  clover  seed  makes  it  a  profitable 
crop  for  farmers  to  grow. 

Clover  produces  seed  best  on  clay  land  that  has  an 
abundance  of  lime  in  it.  The  seed  should  be  run  through  a 
grader  and  screened  before  it  is  put  on  the  market. 

Mammoth  Clover.  --  The  mammoth  clover  resembles  the 
common  red  clover,  but  under  the  same  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  grows  ranker  and  taller.  It  is  from  two  to  three 
weeks  later  in  maturing  and  makes  a  coarser  hay.  For 
this  reason  it  is  preferred  on  sandy  and  worn-out  soils. 
On  account  of  its  lateness  in  maturing  only  one  cutting  of 
hay  per  season  can  be  secured.  If  grown  for  seed  it  should 
be  clipped  back  in  the  spring,  when  five  or  six  inches  high, 
and  the  clippings  left  for  mulch.  There  is  no  way  known 
to  distinguish  medium  red  clover  seed  from  mammoth 
clover  seed.  Mammoth  clover  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  common  variety  by  the  later  maturing  of  the  mammoth 
and  the  absence  of  the  white  spot  on  the  leaf,  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  common  red  clover.  The  harvesting 
for  hay  and  seed  is  the  same  for  mammoth  clover  as  for  the 
common  red  variety. 

Alsike  Clover.  --  The  alsike  or  Swedish  clover  is  a  peren- 
nial plant  and  is  usually  grown  mixed  with  timothy  or  red- 
top,  which  aids  in  holding  the  stems  erect.  The  alsike 
clover  has  a  finer  stem  than  the  red  clover  and  has  a  tend- 
ency to  grow  taller.  It  is  later  in  maturing  than  the 
medium  red  and  reaches  the  cutting  stage  about  the  same 
time  that  timothy  and  redtop  do,  which  makes  it  an  excel- 
lent combination  with  these  grasses. 


126  LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 

Alsike  clover  can  be  grown  on  land  too  low  and  wet  for 
red  clover.  It  can  also  be  grown  on  high,  well-drained 
lands  or  on  any  lands  on  which  the  red  clover  will  grow. 
In  harvesting  for  seed,  it  is  clipped  back  in  the  spring  to 
give  it  a  uniform  growth  and  blossoming  period.  The  seed 
is  much  smaller  than  that  of  red  clover.  Much  of  it  is  used 
for  dyeing  purposes,  and  due  to  this  constant  demand, 
there  is  little  variation  in  the  price  of  this  seed.  The  weight 
per  bushel  is  the  same  for  all  clover  seed.  Alsike  clover  is  a 
popular  clover,  not  only  for  hay  but  for  mixed  pasture. 
When  sown  for  seed,  it  should  not  be  mixed  with  the  grasses 
but  should  be  sown  alone  at  the  rate  of  five  quarts  of  seed 
per  acre. 

White  Clover.  —  White  clover  is  native  to  America  and 
grows  readily  in  all  clover  sections.  The  seed  is  of  a  yellow 
hue  and  smaller  than  the  seed  of  alsike  clover.  White 
clover  is  perennial  in  nature  and  grows  best  on  well-drained 
clay  lands.  When  grown  for  hay,  on  account  of  its  dwarf 
nature,  it  is  always  combined  with  the  grasses  so  as  to 
facilitate  handling.  The  white  clover  seed  is  most  used 
for  pasture  and  lawn  seed  mixtures.  When  grown  for 
seed,  special  devices  for  handling  and  hauling  are  necessary. 
Both  alsike  and  white  clover  produce  honey  of  the  finest 
color  and  flavor.  Beekeepers  are  most  successful  in  dis- 
tricts where  white  and  alsike  clovers  are  grown  abundantly. 

VETCHES 

The  common,  or  smooth,  vetch  and  the  hairy  vetch  are 
the  only  kinds  of  vetches  that  are  generally  grown  in  the 
United  States.  Each  of  these  kinds  has  both  spring  and 
fall  strains.  Vetches  are  used  extensively  in  the  South  as 


VETCHES 


127 


cover  crops  and  soil  improvers,  and  are  becoming  increas- 
ingly popular  in  the  North. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  —  In  the  Northern  States  the  common 
vetch  should  be  sown  in  early  spring,  alone  or  with  oats  or 
other  spring  grain  as  a  nurse  crop,  using  about  one  and  a 
half  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  when  sown  alone,  or  from 
a  half  to  one  bushel  of  seed  when  sown  with  a  nurse  crop. 


Fig.  70.  —  A  field  of  vetch  ready  to  be  plowed  under  for  the  benefit  of  the  soil. 


The  vetch  seed  can  be  mixed  with  the  grain  seeding  and 
thus  can  be  sown  with  a  broadcast  seeder  or  a  grain  drill, 
or  it  can  be  sown  separately.  If  the  vetch  seed  is  sown 
alone,  the  seeder  or  drill  can  be  adjusted  so  as  to  sow  the 
proper  amount. 

In  most  sections  of  the  United  States  the  hairy  vetch  is 
sown  in  the  late  summer  or  early  fall  with  rye  as  a  nurse 
crop.  The  rye  prevents  '  sandy  land  from  drifting  and 


128  LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 

affords  protection  for  the  tiny  vetch  plants.  This  com- 
bination crop  furnishes  excellent  fall  and  winter  pasture, 
and  can  be  grazed  down  late  in  the  spring  without  injury  to 
the  crop.  After  the  stock  is  taken  from  the  fields,  the  rye 
and  vetch  plants  come  on  rapidly.  The  rye  stems  shooting 
up  above  the  vetch  plants,  act  as  a  support  for  them,  thus 
keeping  the  vetch  from  trailing  on  the  ground.  The  crop 
is  harvested  for  hay  much  more  readily  than  when  grown 
alone.  The  hay  cures  much  more  easily  and  is  of  superior 
quality. 

Uses.  —  Vetches  can  be  grown  for  hay,  for  seed,  as  a 
pasture  or  soiling  crop,  as  a  cover  crop  in  orchards,  and  as  a 
soil  improver.  The  vetches  do  not  cure  so  easily  as  do  the 
clovers  and  often  have  to  be  left  in  the  cock  for  several  days. 
It  is  good  practice  to  use  caps  for  the  proper  curing  of  the 
hay.  When  used  as  a  soil  improver,  the  winter  vetch  and 
rye  are  turned  under  in  the  spring  after  several  inches  of 
growth  have  been  obtained,  in  time  to  use  the  ground  for 
potatoes  or  corn. 

Seed  Production.  —  Most  of  the  seed  used  for  growing 
vetch  in  this  country  is  imported  from  Europe.  Since  it 
does  not  seem  to  yield  well  in  America,  it  has  not  as  yet 
been  produced  here  in  large  quantities.  There  are  some 
localities  near  the  Pacific  Coast  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
United  States,  where  considerable  progress  has  been  made 
in  vetch  seed  production. 

The  seed  is  round  and  of  a  dark  purple  color,  somewhat 
resembling  a  small  pea.  It  also  resembles  the  seed  of  the 
pernicious  wheat  cockle.  The  fields  in  which  vetch  is 
grown  should  be  followed  by  a  cultivated  crop  for  at  least 
two  seasons  before  sowing  small  grains,  thus  preventing 
the  mixture  of  small  grains  and  Vetch. 


PEAS  129 

PEAS 

Classification.  —  Peas  are  divided  into  field  and  garden 
groups.  The  garden  varieties  are  used  extensively  as  can- 
ning peas  and  are  sometimes  classified  under  that  name. 


Fig.  71.  — A  field  of  peas  in  blossom. 

Each  group  has  numerous  varieties  characterized  by  color, 
shape,  growth  of  vines,  or  time  of  maturity.  Among  the 
field  varieties  may  be  mentioned  the  Scotch,  Green,  Yellow, 
Marrowfat,  Early  Puritan,  and  Prussian  Blue.  Chief 
among  the  canning  varieties  are  the  Alaska,  Horsford, 
Admiral,  and  Advancer,  each  with  its  peculiar  characters  of 
identification. 

Habits  of  Growth. — The  pea  puts  forth  but  a  single 
plant,  but  this  plant  divides  above  the  ground  and  often 
several  secondary  branches  may  be  found  on  a  single  stalk. 
The  plants  assume  the  nature  of  vines,  which  during  the 
ripening  period  are  recumbent  and  often  lie  prostrate  upon 
the  ground,  making  them  somewhat  difficult  to  harvest. 

Location  of  the  Seed  Bed.  — Peas  do  best  on  high,  well- 
drained  land  that  is  well  supplied  with  lime  and  organic 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. 9 


130 


LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 


%  Fig.  72.  —  Mower  harvesting  peas,  with  buncher  attachment  at  right. 

matter.  Best  results  are  secured  on  the  medium  and  heavy 
clay  loam  soils  that  do  not  heat  to  any  great  depth  and  are 
sufficiently  rolling  so  that  the  surface  water  runs  off  rapidly, 
Peas  do  not  do  well  on  poor  sandy  soils  or  on  lands  that  are 
low  in  fertility.  On  bottom  lands  and  on  rich  prairie  soils 
the  vines  grow  so  luxuriantly  that  they  fail  to  fruit  properly, 
thus  producing  low  yields. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  —  All  seed  should  be  tested  previous 
to  sowing  and  only  seed  of  strong  vitality  should  be  used. 
Peas  can  be  sown  with  the  seeder  or  the  drill  and  should  be 
put  in  as  soon  as  the  ground  works  well  in  early  spring.  The 
drill  is  to  be  preferred  for  seeding  as  the  grower  is  enabled  to 
plant  the  peas  at  a  uniform  depth,  thus  covering  all  seed 
and  encouraging  uniform  sprouting.  Peas  should  be  sown 
at  the  rate  of  from  two  to  three  and  a  half  bushels  per  acre, 
and  covered  at  a  depth  of  two  to  five  inches,  depending 
upon  the  nature  of  the  soil.  On  heavy  clays  that  are 


HARVESTING   AND    THRESHING 


13* 


likely  to  bake,  the  peas  should  be  put  in  at  the  lesser  depth. 

Harvesting  and  Threshing.  —  Special  preparation  should 
be  given  the  land  by  plowing  deeply  in  the  fall  and  disking 
early  in  the  spring.  The  growing  of  peas  is  greatly  facili- 
tated by  rolling  and  dragging  the  ground  before  and  after 
seeding  in  medium  and  light  clay  loams.  This  also  pre- 
pares the  land  for  harvesting.  Peas  are  cut  with  a  mower 
provided  with  buncher  attachment  or  a  pea  harvester,  and 
are  left  on  the  ground  to  cure. 

Canning  peas  are  harvested  in  the  green  state,  by  pulling 
up  the  plants,  picking  the  pods  from  the  vines  and  sacking 
them  by  hand,  or  by  using  a  mower  or  a  harvester  for  cutting 
the  peas  and  leaving  them  on  the  field  in  convenient  shape 
for  handling.  The  pea  vines  are  then  taken  to  the  factory 
and  run  through  a  machine  known  as  a  viner,  which  shells 
the  peas,  separates  them  from  the  vines,  and  runs  them 
into  the  factory  where  they  are  graded  and  canned. 

Another  practice  followed  by  canners  is  to  have  the 
grower  deliver  the  peas  ready  shelled,  for  which  they  pay  a 
certain  price  per  pound.  The  canning  of  peas  is  a  large  and 
growing  industry  in  the  Northern  States.  The  vines  are 
used  for  silage  or  dried  for  pea  straw  and  are  greatly  relished 
by  farm  animals. 

Field  peas  when  cut  after  ripening  are  left  on  the  ground 
in  bunches  to  cure  before  hauling  in.  After  being  fully 
cured  they  are  hauled  from  the  field  and  stacked  or  stored 
in  barns  to  await  the  time  of  threshing. 

Peas  may  be  threshed  with  a  special  pea  thresher  or  with 
the  ordinary  grain  threshing  machine.  When  the  grain 
thresher  is  used  the  regular  concaves  of  the  machine  are 
taken  out  and  blank  concaves  put  in  their  place  to  prevent 
the  splitting  of  the  peas. 


132  LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 

Uses. —  Canning  or  garden  peas  are  used  exclusively  for 
human  diet,  while  the  field  peas  are  used  for  both  human 
food  and  for  farm  animals.  The  field  peas  sold  on  the 
market  for  human  food  are  made  up  into  various  kinds  of 
soups,  while  those  used  for  animal  food  are  usually  mixed 
with  oats,  barley,  wheat,  or  corn,  and  ground  into  meal. 

Rotation.  —  Peas  fit  well  into  a  rotation  as  a  crop  to  be 
sown  on  sod  land  once  in  three  or  four  years.  The  practice 
of  growing  peas  for  several  successive  years  on  the  same 
land  invites  disease  and  multiplication  of  insect  enemies, 
and  is  strongly  condemned. 

SOY  BEANS 

The  soy  bean  is  a  native  of  southeastern  Asia  where  it 
grows  wild  and  forms  an  essential  part  of  the  food  for  the 


Fig«  73-  —  A  field  of  soy  beans.     Note  the  size  of  the  leaves. 

inhabitants.  It  was  introduced  early  into  Japan  and  is 
used  there  and  in  China  principally  as  human  food.  Soy 
beans  were  introduced  into  the  Southern  States  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Until  recently 


SOY  BEANS 


133 


no  extended  effort  has  been  made  to  grow  soy  beans  in 
the  North.  They  are  classified  as  early,  medium,  and 
late,  and  each  division  has  many  varieties,  based  on 
color. 

Habits  of  Growth.  —  In  seed  and  general  appearance  the 
soy  bean  resembles  the  ordinary  navy  bean,  especially  in 

the   early  stages   of     

growth.  The  com- 
mon varieties  are 
erect,  bushy,  and 
well-branched,  rang- 
ing from  eighteen 
inches  to  four  feet  in 
height.  A  covering 
of  fine  hair  is  notice- 
able over  all  parts 
of  the  plant.  The 
leaves  of  the  soybean 
are  composed  of  three 
large  leaflets,  borne 
on  long  leafstalks.  The  small  flowers  grow  in  clusters  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  short,  hairy  pods  contain  two 
or  three  round  or  slightly  flattened  seeds,  varying  in  size 
from  an  eighth  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The 
plant  has  a  short,  strong  taproot  with  a  rather  scanty 
root  system.  The  soy  bean  is  especially  adapted  to  warm 
climates,  but  is  more  resistant  to  frost  than  corn,  cowpeas, 
or  field  beans.  The  length  of  season  required  for  matur- 
ing varies  greatly  with  different  varieties,  ranging  from 
120  to  1 60  days.  In  the  Northern  States  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  get  northern-grown  seed  of  a  variety  that  will 
mature  in  the  grower's  locality. 


Fig.  74.  —  Early  soy  beans. 


134 


LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 


GROWING   PERIOD   AND   YIELD    PER   ACRE    OF   SOY   BEANS 
FROM   TESTS   MADE   AT   THE   WISCONSIN   STATION 


NAME  OF  VARIETY 

GROWING 
PERIOD  IN 

DAYS 

YIELD  PER 
ACRE  IN 
BUSHELS 

WEIGHT  PER 
MEASURED 
BUSHEL 

Ito  San    

i   6 

I  2    7 

r() 

Early  Brown 

n6 

16  ^ 

Medium  Early  Black      
Medium  Early  Green      

•     •         i33 

22  3 

54-5 

Medium  Early  Yellow    . 

1^6 

2Q 

-/t 

Michigan  Green     ... 

162 

26  7 

eg 

Wisconsin  Black    

122 

23 

ZA   z 

Early  Black       

133 

17.3 

52 

Uses.  —  The  soy  bean  is  not  used  as  a  human  food  in  the 
United  States,  its  chief  uses  being  that  of  a  hay  plant,  a  soil 
renovator,  a  mixed  silage  crop,  and  a  dry  feed  for  hogs, 
sheep,  and  cattle.  The  protein  content  of  this  plant  is  so 
high  when  compared  with  that  of  other  feeds  that  it  com- 
mends itself  readily  to  dairymen  and  stockmen  who  desire 
protein  foods  to  use  in  balancing  rations  for  farm  animals. 

The  analyses  of  the  seeds  of  dry  soy  beans  show  the 
following  composition : 

PER  CENT 

Protein 36.25 

Nitrogen-free  Extract 25.97 

Fat 16.90 

Moisture Jo-53 

Ash 6.20 

Crude  Fiber 4.15 

Total 100.00 

As  a  hay  crop  it  ranks  next  to  alfalfa,  and  it  makes  excel- 
lent silage  when  mixed,  at  the  time  of  filling  the  silo,  with 
two  thirds  its  weight  of  corn.  If  used  exclusively  for  silage, 
it  gives  off  a  disagreeable  odor  that  permeates  the  whole 
stable,  and  is  therefore  objectionable  to  dairymen  for  feed- 


SOY   BEANS   AS   FOOD 


135 


ing  purposes.  As  the  soy  bean  is  an  annual,  a  hay  crop, 
superior  to  clover  in  feeding  value,  may  be  obtained  in  a 
single  season.  When  drought  occurs  early  in  the  spring 
and  some  other  crop  is  ruined,  soy  beans  may  be  planted  as 
a  catch  crop,  thus  securing  a  good  yield  of  hay  or  grain. 

Soy  Beans  as  a  Protein  Food. --The  following  table 
shows  the  relative  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  soy 
beans  and  in  other  common  concentrated  feeds.  They 
rank  closely  with  cottonseed  meal  and  linseed  meal  and 
contain  more  than  twice  as  much  crude  protein  as  wheat 
bran. 


AVERAGE   DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   IN   SOY  BEANS  AND 
OTHER   CONCENTRATES 


FEEDING  STUFF 

TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER  IN 
100  POUNDS 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  100 
POUNDS 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Soy  beans       
Cottonseed  meal  (choice) 
Linseed  meal  (old  process)    .     . 
Wheat  bran 

88.3 
92.6 
90.2 
88.1 
89.6 
89.2 
89-4 

29.1 
35-8 
30.2 
II.9 
8.8 
8.4 
7.8 

23-3 
23.2 
32.0 
42.0 
49.2 

65.3 
66.8 

14.6 

8.0 
6.9 
2-5 
4-3 
1.6 

4-3 

Oats      

Barley 

Dent  corn       

The  results  of  feeding  trials  at  several  experiment  stations 
show  the  value  of  soy  beans  for  various  classes  of  animals. 
Being  rich  in  crude  protein  they  should  never  be  fed  alone 
but  used  with  feeds,  like  corn,  oats,  and  barley,  which  are 
much  lower  in  crude  protein. 

Soy  Beans  for  Hay.  —  The  soy  bean  makes  valuable  hay- 
when  properly  cured,  and  all  farm  animals  eat  it  with  great 


i36 


LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 


relish.     The  following  table  shows  the  nutrients  in  soy  bean 
hay  compared  with  other  common  roughage : 

AVERAGE  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  SOY  BEAN  HAY  AND 
OTHER   ROUGHAGE 


FEEDING  STUFF 

TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER  IN 
100  POUNDS 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  100 
POUNDS 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Soy  bean  hay 

88.2 
91.9 

84.7 
86.0 
86.8 
57-8 

IO.6 
10.5 
7-1 
4-7 

2.8 
2-5 

40.9 

40-5 
37-8 
36.7 
42.4 
34-6 

1.2 
0.9 
1.8 
1.7 

1-3 

1.2 

Alfalfa  hay    

Red  clover  hay 

Oat  hay 

Timothy  hay      

Corn  fodder  with  ears 

Planting.  —  Soy  beans  thrive  best  on  high,  loamy  soils 
but  will  grow  on  any  soil  that  will  produce  potatoes  or  corn. 
The  seed  bed  should  be  made  fine  and  mellow.  To  mature 
the  crop  in  northern  sections,  the  soy  beans  should  be 
planted  in  rows  with  a  hand  or  grain  drill  after  the  time  for 
planting  corn.  Approximately  a  third  of  a  bushel  of  seed 
per  acre  is  required  when  planted  in  drills.  The  rows 
should  be  about  thirty  inches  apart  and  the  beans  should 
be  dropped  about  two  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

When  a  heavy  yield  of  dry  beans  or  hay  is  desired,  the 
early  maturing  varieties  should  be  used.  For  silage  pur- 
poses, the  medium  or  late  varieties  are  preferred.  In 
growing  soy  beans  for  hay  they  should  be  sown  broadcast 
or  in  narrow  drills,  using  a  bushel  of  seed  per  acre. 

Cultivation.  —  Soy  beans  should  be  cultivated  between 
the  rows  the  same  as  corn  and  approximately  at  the  same 
time.  Usually  three  cultivations  are  sufficient,  as  the 


HARVESTING 


137 


broad  leaves  of  the  plants  spread  over  the  ground  to  such  an 
extent  that  weeds  are  kept  down  effectually.  They  should 
not  be  cultivated  while  the  leaves  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain, 
since  this  practice  is  likely  to  spread  the  spores  of  fungus 
diseases,  and  thus  injure  the  crop.  Shallow  cultivation  is 
highly  recommended. 

Harvesting.  —  For  soiling  purposes  or  for  hay  the  plants 
should  be  cut  with  a  mower  when  in  blossom,  but  for  seed 


Fig«  75-  —  A  soy  bean  harvester. 

or  dry  beans  they  should  be  cut  after  the  pods  have  turned 
brown.  Soy  beans  can  be  harvested  for  seed  with  a  com- 
mon mower  with  windrow  attachment  or  a  bean  harvester. 
Where  only  a  small  area  is  grown,  they  can  be  pulled  by 


138  LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 

hand  or  cut  with  a  scythe  or  a  corn  knife.  After  cutting 
it  is  well  to  let  the  beans  lie  in  shocks  or  in  windrows  for 
several  days  before  threshing. 

Threshing  and  Storing.  —  If  the  beans  are  thoroughly 
dry  they  can  be  threshed  nicely  with  a  grain  thresher. 
Blank  concaves  should  be  used  to  prevent  splitting  of  the 
beans.  The  cylinder  should  be  run  at  less  speed  than 
when  threshing  grain.  The  beans  should  be  stored  in 
barrels  or  shallow  bins,  or  spread  out  on  a  floor  where  from 
time  to  time  they  can  be  shoveled  over  until  they  are 
thoroughly  dry  and  hard.  Later  they  may  be  safely  stored 
more  compactly.  When  stored  immediately  after  thresh- 
ing, the  beans  are  apt  to  heat  and  mold.  As  soy  beans  lose 
their  germinating  power  rather  quickly,  even  when  properly 
stored,  they  should  always  be  carefully  tested  for  germina- 
tion before  planting. 

The  dry  beans  will  keep  well  for  several  years  when  not 
exposed  to  the  elements.  They  can  be  fed  whole  to  pigs 
and  sheep,  but  for  general  use  it  is  preferable  to  crack  or 
grind  them. 

Tests  have  shown  that  it  is  often  necessary  to  mix  the 
beans  with  corn  or  peas  to  grind  them  into  meal,  as  the 
beans  are  too  soft  to  granulate  well  if  ground  alone.  Too 
large  quantities  should  not  be  ground  at  a  time,  as  the  high 
oil  content  will  cause  the  meal  to  heat  and  turn  rancid  in 
storage,  making  it  unfit  for  feed. 

Soil  Inoculation.  —  When  soy  beans  are  planted  on  land 
that  has  never  before  grown  soy  beans,  it  is  well  to  inoculate 
with  the  bacteria  that  produce  the  nodules  on  the  roots  of 
the  plants.  This  can  be  done  by  securing  soil  from  a  field 
upon  which  soy  beans  have  been  grown  for  several  years, 
and  scattering  it  at  the  rate  of  about  600  pounds  to  the 


EXERCISES 


139 


acre  upon  the  field  to  be  planted  with  soy  beans.  A  good 
inoculation  can  be  obtained  by  merely  mixing  equal  quan- 
tities of  bacteria-laden 
earth  and  soy  beans  and 
planting  the  mixture. 
The  roots  of  the  plants 
on  the  land  thus  treated 
will  be  found  to  have 
the  nodules  attached  to 
them  in  abundance,  and 
the  absence  of  the  nod- 
ules will  be  noticed  in 
plants  from  fields  not 
inoculated.  Tests  seem 
to  show  that  there  are 
a  limited  number  of  the 
nitrogen-fixing  bacteria 
for  soy  beans  in  all  soils, 
but  it  is  best  to  inocu- 
late to  secure  at  once 
their  beneficial  action. 


Fig.  76.  —  Nodules  on  the  roots  of  soy  beans. 


EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  the  principal  characteristics  of  the  legumes? 

2.  How  does  the  protein  content  of  the  legumes  compare 
with  that  of  cereal  grains? 

3.  How  do  legumes  benefit  the  soil? 

4.  Under  what  conditions  will  clover  "wear  out"  the  land? 

5.  What  are  the  principal  legumes  grown  in  the  Northern 
States?     In  the  South? 

6.  Can  a  piece  of  land  be  inoculated  for  alfalfa  by  sowing 
clover  on  it? 


140  LEGUMINOUS   CROPS 

7.  By  the  use  of  the  tables  in  this  chapter  calculate  the 
amount  of  protein  in  a  ton  of  alfalfa,  clover,  timothy  hay,  and 
corn  fodder. 

8.  What  is  the  average  yield  of  each  of  the  above  crops  in 
your  locality  ? 

HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Grow  small  plots  of  medium  red,  mammoth,  crimson,  and 
alsike  clovers  for  comparison  and  study. 

2.  Sow  common  vetch  in  the  spring  with  and  without  oats 
for  hay,  and  cut  when  the  vetch  is  in  full  bloom. 

3.  Sow  hairy  vetch  in  the  fall  with  and  without  rye  as  a 
nurse  crop,  and  note  the  development  for  hay  the  following 
summer. 

4.  Pasture  vetch  and  rye  in  the  fall  and  spring  and  then  let 
grow  for  hay. 

5.  Turn  vetch  and  rye  under  for  green  manure  and  grow 
corn,  potatoes,  or  root  crops,  noting  results. 

6.  Grow  a  plot  each  of  Alaska,   Admiral,  Horsford,   and 
Advancer  peas  for  comparison  and  study. 

7.  Grow  plots  of  Scotch,  Marrowfat,  Green,  and  Yellow  field 
peas  for  comparison  and  study. 

8.  Put  up  some  threshed  and  sheaf  samples  of  legumes  for 
exhibition  purposes. 


CHAPTER   XI 

ALFALFA 

ALFALFA  belongs  to  the  legume  family.  Like  other  mem- 
bers of  the  family  it  is  able  to  use  the  free  nitrogen  of  the 
air  to  build  up  plant  tissue,  through  the  actiVity  of  certain 
bacteria  that  inhabit  the  nodules  upon  the  roots.  Alfalfa 
can  truly  be  called  the  queen  of  forage  plants.  No  other 
forage  plant  is  more  readily  relished  by  farm  animals  or 
exercises  a  more  beneficial  effect  upon  the  soil.  There  are 
numerous  varieties  of  alfalfa,  differing  in  their  foliage, 
manner  of  growth,  and  ability  to  withstand  the  elements. 
The  leading  varieties  are  the  Grimm,  Cossack,  Baltic, 
Turkestan,  Common  Persian,  and  Sand  Lucerne. 

Habits  of  Growth.  — Alfalfa  is  an  erect  plant  and  grows 
to  the  average  height  of  two  to  three  feet.  It  is  character- 
ized by  smooth  stems  and  leaves  and  the  numerous  shoots 
coming  forth  from  a  single  plant.  The  alfalfa  plant  has 
a  large  taproot  and  many  smaller  branch  roots  or  several 
distinct  roots  running  down  from  a  single  crown.  In  many 
instances  the  roots  penetrate  the  ground  to  a  depth  of 
twenty-five  feet.  A  veritable  forest  of  roots  lies  under 
each  well-established  alfalfa  field.  Alfalfa  through  this 
large  root  growth  exerts  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  soil 
on  which  it  grows ;  and  through  its  power  to  feed  on  the 
soil  elements  and  secure  moisture  at  great  depth  below  the 
surface,  it  is  able  to  stand  severe  droughts  and  maintain 

141 


142  ALFALFA 

itself  upon  the  soil  for  many  years  without  the  necessity 
of  reseeding. 

Through  this  power  of  the  plant  to  send  down  such  a 
vast  number  of  roots  the  soil  even  though  previously  com- 
pact becomes  porous  and  friable,  so  that  in  later  years  when 


Fig-  77- — Alfalfa  should  not  be  grown  in  a  poorly  drained  field. 

plowed  and  fitted  for  other  crops  its  physical  condition  is 
much  improved.  This  great  mass  of  root  growth  which 
decays  when  the  field  is  plowed  up  adds  materially  to  the 
humus  content  and  the  richness  of  the  soil,  and  thus  enables 
the  farmer  to  have  a  field  high  in  fertility  in  which  he  can 
grow  large  crops  of  corn  or  other  grains. 

Location  and  Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed.  --  The  alfalfa 
field  should  be  located  on  high,  well-drained  land.  In 
humid  regions  it  is  useless  to  sow  alfalfa  seed  on  river  or 
creek  bottoms  that  overflow  their  banks  annually,  or  to 
sow  it  on  marsh  lands  where  the  water  level  is  only  two  or 
three  feet  below  the  surface.  It  is  also  well  not  to  select  a 


PREPARATION   OF   THE    SEED   BED  143 

field  so  level  that  the  surface  water  cannot  run  off  readily 
after  showers  and  heavy  rains.  On  level  lands  in  winter 
when  melting  snow  or  rain  fills  the  small  depressions,  ice 
may  form  over  these  shallow  basins  and  smother  the  plants. 
Alfalfa  can  be  grown  on  nearly  all  soils,  but  does  best  on 
gravelly  or  limestone  soils  where  the  surface  soil  is  a  clay 
loam.  It  is  extremely  hard  to  get  a  catch  of  alfalfa  on 
sandy  soils  unless  the  land  is  heavily  manured  and  given 
special  treatment.  Heavy  clay  lands  will  grow  alfalfa  to 
advantage  if  the  ground  is  plowed  deep  and  thoroughly 
pulverized.  A  soil  that  has  grown  grain  and  hay  crops 
through  a  series  of  years  and  has  been  thoroughly  subdued 
is  best  suited  for  alfalfa  growing.  Fall  plowing  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, as  a  beneficial  influence  is  exerted  on  the  soil  by  the 
winter  freezing.  If  spring  plowing  is  resorted  to,  the  ground 
should  be  rolled  and  dragged  before  and  after  seeding. 


Fig.  78.  —  Preparing  the  seed  bed  for  alfalfa. 

Fall-plowed  land  should  be  disked  in  early  spring  and  imme- 
diately dragged  with  a  fine-tooth  harrow.  It  should  then 
be  kept  mellow  with  the  harrow  until  the  time  for  seeding. 


144 


ALFALFA 


Testing  the  Seed.  —  Alfalfa  seed  should  be  tested  before 
planting,  as  the  test  will  reveal  to  the  farmer  several  facts 
which  will  guide  him  in  his  work.  Before  purchasing  alfalfa 
seed  in  large  quantities,  farmers  should  write  to  their  seeds- 
men requesting  samples  of  seed.  A  simple  plate  tester  is 
used  in  making  the  germinating  test.  This  tester  is  made 
by  using  two  tin  pie  plates,  one  slightly  smaller  than  the 


Fig.  79.  —  Pie-plate  testers  for  alfalfa  and  grass  seeds. 

other.  Earthen  plates  can  be  used,  but  they  are  not  so 
convenient  and  are  liable  to  be  broken.  Cotton  or  flannel 
pads  are  cut  out  the  same  size  as  the  inside  of  the  under 
plate.  The  pads  are  soaked  in  water  and  then  squeezed 
to  remove  the  surplus  water.  One  pad  is  put  at  the  bottom 
of  the  larger  plate  and  a  hundred  alfalfa  seeds  are  placed 
upon  it.  The  other  pad  is  placed  upon  the  seeds  and  the 
smaller  plate  inverted  and  used  as  a  cover  to  prevent 


TESTING  THE  SEED  145 

evaporation  of  moisture.  Common  blotting  paper  can  be 
used  for  pads  if  desired.  The  tester  should  then  be  left 
in  some  convenient  place  at  ordinary  room  temperature 
(70°  F.)  or  slightly  above.  At  the  expiration  of  twenty- 
four  hours  the  tester  is  examined,  and  if  the  pads  are  some- 
what dry,  they  should  be  moistened.  The  lower  pad  should 
be  raised  when  these  examinations  are  made  so  as  to  admit 
air  underneath  the  pad,  which  facilitates  the  process  of 
germination.  Seeds  should  show  signs  of  germination 
after  being  in  the  tester  for  seventy- two  hours.  All  good 
seeds  under  favorable  conditions  will  have  sprouted  after 
being  in  the  tester  five  days.  Those  not  sprouted  at  this 
time  may  be  rejected  as  worthless,  but  should  be  kept  at 
least  twenty-four  hours  beyond  the  usual  time  so  as  to  leave 
no  doubt  as  to  the  reliability  of  the  results.  As  the  seeds 
sprout  they  should  be  taken  from  the  tester  from  day  to  day 
and  a  record  made  of  the  test  on  a  slip  of  paper  that  may  be 
kept  on  top  of  the  pads.  In  making  these  tests  the  vigor 
shown  in  the  sprouting  of  the  seeds  should  be  taken  into 
consideration  as  well  as  the  number  of  seeds  sprouted.  A 
seed  that  is  tardy  in  germinating  and  puts  forth  a  weak 
sprout  is  not  desirable.  Occasionally  hard  seeds  are  found 
in  alfalfa  that  seem  impervious  to  moisture  and  consequently 
will  not  germinate  in  the  allotted  time,  but  will  germinate, 
however,  in  the  ground  after  frost  has  acted  upon  them,  or 
if  they  have  been  scratched  by  passing  through  a  seeder. 
It  is  customary  for  seed  laboratories  to  count  a  third  of 
all  hard  seeds  found  in  a  test  as  germinable. 

Sowing  without  a  Nurse  Crop. — In  the  early  spring  the 
disk  should  be  run  over  the  land  and  followed  with  a  fine- 
tooth  harrow  at  weekly  intervals  until  about  June  i,  so 
that  the  weeds  will  sprout  and  be  killed.  This  treatment 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. IO 


146  ALFALFA 

will  conserve  moisture  and  warm  the  soil.  The  alfalfa  seed 
is  then  sown  without  any  nurse  crop,  using  twenty  pounds 
of  seed  per  acre.  If  the  land  is  known  to  be  weedy,  it  is 
best  to  continue  the  cultivation  through  June  and  a  portion 
of  July  and  then  sow  the  seed.  If  conditions  are  favorable 
and  seed  is  sown  June  i,  one  cutting  of  alfalfa  hay  may  be 
secured  the  same  season.  Alfalfa  can  be  cut  with  safety 
any  time  previous  to  the  first  appearance  of  frost.  In  the 
Northern  States  the  last  cutting  of  alfalfa  should  be  made 
not  later  than  September  10,  regardless  of  the  cutting 
stage.  Sufficient  growth  will  then  be  secured  before 
freezing  weather  to  protect  the  plant  through  the  winter. 

The  practice  of  sowing  alfalfa  with  a  nurse  crop  is  being 
displaced  by  the  method  of  sowing  the  seed  alone,  and 
much  better  results  are  obtained  if  the  land  is  free  from 
weeds.  The  tiny  alfalfa  plants  should  have  a  chance  to 
take  full  possession  of  the  ground,  which  they  cannot  do 
to  advantage  if  crowded  by  a  nurse  crop.  While  experi- 
ments show  that  good  catches  of  alfalfa  are  occasionally 
secured  by  the  use  of  a  light  nurse  crop,  yet  much  better 
catches  and  a  more  lasting  seeding  can  be  secured  by  sowing 
the  alfalfa  seed  alone.  The  seed  can  be  sov/n  either  with  a 
hand  seeder  or  a  grain  drill  with  a  grass  seeder  attachment. 
When  sown  with  a  hand  seeder,  or  when  broadcasted  with  a 
seeder  attachment,  a  slant-tooth  harrow  should  be  used 
to  cover  the  seed  slightly. 

On  clay  soils  the  seed  should  be  sown  less  than  an  inch 
deep,  or  the  tiny  plants  will  not  be  able  to  push  their 
way  to  the  surface.  Land  plowed  in  the  spring  for  alfalfa 
should  be  dragged  as  soon  as  plowed  to  prevent  drying  out 
and  the  planker  or  roller  should  be  run  over  the  land  before 
and  after  seeding,  and  finished  by  using  a  fine-tooth  harrow 


METHODS   OF   SEEDING 


T47 


so  as  to  leave  the  surface  loose  enough  to  prevent  rapid 
evaporation.  The  alfalfa  crop  is  benefited  by  a  light  coat- 
ing of  well-rotted  manure,  or  manure  that  is  free  from  coarse 
litter.  It  should 
be  put  on  during  a 
dry  spell  or  after 
the  ground  is  frozen 
in  the  fall  so  as 
not  to  injure  the 
plants  when  driv- 
ing over  them. 

Sowing  with  a 
Nurse  Crop.  —  If 
one  wishes  to  grow 
a  grain  crop  the 
same  season  that 
alfalfa  is  seeded, 
much  care  should 
be  taken  in  the 
preparation  of  the 
seed  bed.  If  the 
land  has  previously 
grown  alfalfa,  it 
will  be  much  easier 
to  get  a  good  stand 
than  if  it  is  the  first 
seeding.  Experi- 
ments show  that 
on  rich  soil,  barley 

is   One    Of    the    best  Fig.  80.  -  A  six-year-old  alfalfa  plant. 

nurse  crops,  although  oats  or  spring  wheat  may  be  used. 
The  nurse  crop  should  be  sown  thin,  using  only  about  half 


148 


ALFALFA 


as  much  seed  as  when  the  cereal  crop  is  sown  alone.  When 
alfalfa  is  sown  with  a  nurse  crop,  the  time  of  seeding  should 
be  governed  by  the  best  time  for  the  cereal.  The  seeding 
can  be  done  with  one  operation  provided  a  drill  or  seeder 
is  used  with  a  grass  seeder  attachment.  It  is  preferable 
to  let  the  alfalfa  seed  scatter  broad- 
cast and  to  run  a  slant-tooth  harrow 
over  the  ground  once  after  seeding. 
Some  good  seedings  have  been  ob- 
tained when  the  seed  was  run  through 
the  drill,  but  the  tendency  is  to  cover 
too  deeply  when  this  practice  is  fol- 
lowed. If  the  season  is  extremely 
dry,  it  is  best  to  cut  the  nurse  crop 
early  for  hay  and  thereby  give  the 
alfalfa  a  better  opportunity  to  grow. 
If  the  season  is  not  too  dry,  the  cereal 
crop  can  be  left  to  ripen,  and  can 
be  harvested  in  the  usual  manner. 
Many  good  stands  of  alfalfa  have 
been  secured  in  this  way. 

Other  Methods  of  Seeding.  —  If 
the  land  is  mellow  and  conditions  are 
favorable  for  the  growth  of  alfalfa,  a 
stand  can  be  obtained  by  sowing  the 
seed  early  in  the  spring  on  land  that 
is  growing  fall  rye.  When  the  land  is 
extremely  weedy,  it  is  advisable  to  summer  fallow  and  sow 
alfalfa  the  first  week  in  August.  The  moisture  conserved 
makes  the  alfalfa  seed  sprout  rapidly,  and  the  plants  reach 
sufficient  height  for  winter  protection.  Often  where  early 
peas  or  potatoes  have  been  grown,  the  land  can  be  put  into 


Fig.  8 1.—  Alfalfa   plant 
blossom. 


CUTTING   AND    CURING  ALFALFA  149 

condition  and  alfalfa  seed  sown  after  the  crop  of  potatoes 
or  peas  has  been  harvested.  If  weedy,  the  land  should  be 
plowed  after  the  crop  is  removed ;  and  to  kill  weeds,  a  fine- 
tooth  harrow  should  be  run  over  it  at  intervals  through  the 
latter  part  of  the  summer  and  early  fall.  Alfalfa  can  then 
be  sown  without  a  nurse  crop  in  the  early  spring  with 
probability  of  a  good  catch.  Alfalfa  can  be  sown  success- 
fully on  rich  soils,  following  early  crops  such  as  peas,  early 
potatoes,  and  early  grain  crops. 

Cutting  and  Curing  Alfalfa.  —  No  crop  can  be  secured 
the  same  season  that  alfalfa  seed  is  sown,  except  under  the 


Fig.  82.  —  Cutting  a  field  of  alfalfa. 

most  favorable  conditions.  The  year  following  seeding, 
three  good  crops  may  be  expected.  The  first  crop  in 
northern  latitudes  will  be  ready  for  cutting  early  in  June,  a 
trying  time  for  curing  hay.  It  should  be  cut  when  the 
alfalfa  is  in  advanced  bud  and  a  few  plants  are  in  blossom, 
on  a  day  that  promises  fair  weather.  Occasionally  the 
alfalfa  will  come  into  bud  and  hesitate  to  blossom ;  sprouts 
will  then  immediately  start  at  the  base.  It  should  be  cut 


150  ALFALFA 

when  those  conditions  prevail  even  though  no  blossoms 
appear. 

When  alfalfa  is  cut  in  the  morning,  if  the  weather  is 
favorable  the  hay  can  be  raked  and  put  into  small  cocks 
in  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day.  The  cocks  should 
not  be  left  standing  in  the  field  more  than  two  or  three 
days  during  wet  weather  without  moving,  or  the  alfalfa 
plants  underneath  the  cocks  will  be  partially  or  completely 
smothered.  By  running  a  pitchfork  into  a  cock  of  alfalfa 
near  the  bottom  one  can  easily  move  the  pile.  If  alfalfa 
is  exceedingly  green  when  cocked,  or  rainy  weather  sets  in, 
it  will  heat  unless  the  cocks  are  opened  every  day  or  two. 
In  favorable  weather  no  more  difficulty  will  be  experienced 


©  Keiistttnr  Vinr  CO. 

Fig.  83-       Hogs  fattened  on  alfalfa. 


in  curing  alfalfa  than  in  curing  heavy  growths  of  clover. 
Like  clover  leaves,  the  alfalfa  leaves  drop  off  readily  when 
dry.  As  the  leaves  are  richest  in  nitrogen  the  aim  of  the 
farmer  should  be  to  cure  the  alfalfa  with  the  least  possible 


CURING   UNDER   CAPS  151 

handling.     Half  of  the  feeding  value  may  be  lost  through 
weathering  and  improper  handling. 

Curing  under  Caps.  —  A  much  better   quality  of   hay 
will  be  secured  if  the  crop  is  cured  under  hay  caps  than  in 


Fig.  84.  —  Alfalfa  under  hay  caps. 

open  cocks  or  windrows,  as  dew  and  sunshine  hurt  alfalfa 
hay.  Caps  can  be  made  from  light  cotton  duck.  The 
edges  of  the  cloth  should  be  hemmed  to  prevent  raveling 
and  eyelets  should  be  made  in  the  corners,  in  which  strings 
may  be  tied  and  attached  to  weights.  Heavy  wires  eighteen 
inches  long  and  looped  at  one  end  to  receive  the  strings 
attached  to  the  caps  make  a  convenient  arrangement  to 
hold  the  caps  in  place.  These  wire  pegs  can  be  either  run 
into  the  ground  or  bent  in  the  form  of  hooks  and  pushed 
into  the  sides  of  the  cocks. 

Much  of  the  feeding  value  is  lost  through  stacking,  as 
the  hay  is  porous  and  rain  penetrates  the  stacks  two  or 
three  feet.  However,  little  of  the  alfalfa  is  lost  when  stored 
under  cover.  An  outside  mow  with  roof  does  fairly  well, 
or  a  covering  of  marsh  hay  or  a  tarpaulin  will  prevent 
damage  to  the  alfalfa  in  the  stack.  It  is  well  to  let  the 


T  52  ALFALFA 

alfalfa  sweat  in  the  cock,  otherwise  it  will  heat  and  get 
musty  in  the  barn  or  stack. 

Alfalfa  as  a  Soiling  and  Pasture  Crop.  —  No  other 
soiling  crop  will  give  such  good  results  throughout  the  sum- 
mer as  alfalfa.  Alfalfa  is  ready  to  cut  for  soiling  about 
June  i,  and  can  be  cut  continuously  until  September  5 
in  the  North  and  earlier  and  later  in  the  South.  By  be- 
ginning to  cut  early  and  arranging  so  that  daily  cuttings 
can  be  taken  through  the  advanced  cutting  state,  it  is 
possible  to  have  good  succulent  alfalfa  throughout  the  sum- 
mer. In  good  growing  weather  a  crop  will  mature  suffi- 
ciently for  soiling  purposes  in  twenty  to  thirty  days.  Alfalfa 
has  not  yet  come  into  general  use  in  the  East  as  a  pasture 
crop.  The  attempts  so  far  made  have  proved  disastrous 
to  the  crop.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  makes  an  excellent 
pasture,  but  stock  relish  the  plant  so  much  that  they  graze 
it  too  closely.  Only  a  limited  number  of  animals  should 
be  turned  in,  so  that  the  fields  may  be  pastured  and  cut 
for  hay  also.  As  a  hog  pasture,  no  plant  can  excel  alfalfa. 
Ten  to  twelve  medium  sized  hogs  can  be  pastured  on  an 
acre.  The  surplus  alfalfa  in  the  hog  pasture  when  mature 
should  be  cut  and  made  into  hay.  Ruminants,  such  as 
cattle  and  sheep,  often  bloat  when  allowed  to  pasture  on 
luxuriant  growths  of  moist  alfalfa,  but  there  is  no  such 
danger  after  the  alfalfa  is  in  blossom  and  during  dry 
weather. 

Seed  Production.  —  Very  little  seed  has  as  yet  been  pro- 
duced in  the  humid  regions  and  we  are  dependent  upon  the 
arid  and  semiarid  districts  of  the  United  States  for  our 
alfalfa  seed  production.  The  larger  portion  of  the  seed  is 
jjrown  under  methods  of  irrigation  where  six  or  eight  hay 
crops  are  produced  annually.  As  a  crop  of  seed  is  secured 


SEED   PRODUCTION 


153 


154  'ALFALFA 

at  the  expense  of  two  cuttings  of  hay,  it  will  not  pay  the 
grower  in  the  East  to  produce  seed  until  larger  yields  per 
acre  can  be  secured. 

Alfalfa  Acreage.  --  The  great  amount  of  valuable  forage 
taken  from  a  limited  acreage  has  led  many  to  think  that  a 
large  portion  of  the  farm  should  be  sown  in  alfalfa  regardless 
of  condition.  A  word  of  caution  to  farmers  who  have 
never  grown  alfalfa  is  necessary.  They  should  try  only  a 
limited  acreage,  not  more  than  one  or  two  acres  to  begin 
with,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  plant  and  the  soil 
conditions  on  the  farm.  The  longer  alfalfa  is  grown  and 
fed  upon  the  farm  the  more  ideal  the  conditions  for  suc- 
cessful growth  become,  and  the  day  is  rapidly  approaching 
when  alfalfa  will  be  grown  as  generally  in  the  humid  regions 
as  common  red  clover  now  is. 

Soil  Inoculation.  —  Alfalfa  is  able  to  use  the  nitrogen 
of  the  air,  only  when  the  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  are  present. 
Where  the  soil  contains  these  organisms  in  limited  numbers 
the  plants  not  acted  upon  by  the  bacteria  soon  wither  and 
die.  In  some  sections  the  ground  is  sufficiently  supplied  with 
the  alfalfa  bacteria,  but  there  are  localities  where  they  are 
present  in  so  limited  numbers  that  it  seems  impossible  to 
get  a  catch  of  alfalfa  that  will  survive  the  first  winter. 
Sweet  clover,  an  ordinary  roadside  weed,  is  one  of  the  dis- 
tributors of  alfalfa  bacteria.  When  a  farmer  is  in  doubt 
as  to  whether  his  land  contains  the  proper  bacteria  he  can 
successfully  inoculate  his  fields  by  scattering  on  them  soil 
from  an  old  alfalfa  field  or  soil  on  which  sweet  clover  has 
grown.  For  best  results  one  ton  of  earth  per  acre  should 
be  scattered  immediately  preceding  the  sowing  of  the  alfalfa 
seed.  Farmers  who  have  no  alfalfa  or  sweet  clover  near  at 
hand  from  which  to  get  infected  soil  in  large  amounts, 


SOIL   INOCULATION 


T55 


should  secure  a  sack  of  a  hundred  pounds  of  alfalfa  soil 
from  some  alfalfa  grower  or  from  the  state  experiment 
station.  One  hundred  pounds  of  this  soil  is  sufficient 
to  scatter  on  about  eight  or  ten  square  rods  of  the  field  to 
be  sown  in  alfalfa.  The  year  following  the  seeding,  soil 
can  be  taken  from  the  por- 
tion of  the  field  on  which 
the  infected  soil  was  scat- 
tered and  used  for  the  in- 
oculation of  larger  areas. 
Alfalfa  responds  readily  to 
these  methods  of  inocula- 
tion, and  nearly  all  plants 
will  have  the  proper  nodules 
on  the  roots  the  first  season 
of  growth.  If  the  infected 
soil  is  mixed  with  the  alfalfa 
seed  and  sown  by  hand,  a 
small  amount  of  soil  will 
partially  inoculate  a  con- 
siderable area. 

To  prepare  soil  for  grow- 
ing alfalfa  a  mixture  of  one 
fourth  alfalfa  and  three 
fourths  clover  or  grass  seed 
may  be  used  in  seeding  down 
a  portion  of  the  farm.  The 
mixed  hay  will  be  improved  by  the  alfalfa  in  it,  and  the 
alfalfa  plants  will  become  producers  and  distributors  of  the 
bacteria  needed  for  future  crops  of  this  legume.  After 
alfalfa  has  been  grown  and  fed,  and  the  manure  made 
from  the  alfalfa  scattered  over  the  farm,  all  the  soil  on  the 


Fig.  86. 


Clusters  of  nodules  on  alfalfa 
roots. 


ALFALFA 


farm  soon  becomes  filled  with  the  proper  germs.  Where 
exceedingly  heavy  applications  of  barnyard  manure  are 
placed  upon  small  areas,  the  alfalfa  does  well,  and  in  the 
second  year  of  its  growth  has  the  proper  nodules  even 
without  artificial  inoculation.  The  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  some  of  the  colleges  of.  agriculture, 


Fig.  87.  —  Scattering  bacteria-laden  soil  for  inoculation  purposes  previous  to  sowing 

alfalfa  seed. 


and  several  commercial  firms  are  now  preparing  artificial 
cultures  which  readily  take  the  place  of  soil  for  inoculat- 
ing purposes. 

Rotation.  —  No  definite  rotation  of  crops  is  practiced 
by  farmers  in  general.  When  a  field  of  alfalfa  is  well 
established  the  desire  is  to  continue  cutting  as  long  as  the 
field  will  furnish  good  crops.  When  alfalfa  can  be  grown 
successfully  on  all  portions  of  a  farm  a  five-year  rotation 
can  be  maintained,  in  which  alfalfa  can  be  grown  for  three 
years  and  grain  crops  for  the  other  two  years.  This 
practice  will  result  in  better  yields  of  grain  crops. 

Feeding  Value  of  Alfalfa.  —  The  feeding  value  of  alfalfa 


FEEDING  VALUE  OF  ALFALFA 


157 


in  comparison  with  that  of  other  forage  crops  is  shown  in 
Table  A.  The  value  of  alfalfa  hay  in  comparison  with  that 
of  common  grain  feeds  is  shown  in  Table  B. 

TABLE   A.     FEEDING   VALUE   OF  CURED  HAY 

(Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds) 


CURED  HAY 

POUNDS 
PROTEIN 

POUNDS 
CARBOHYDRATES 

POUNDS 
FAT 

Alfalfa  hay      

11.7 

40.9 

I.O 

Red  clover      

7.1 

37-8 

1.8 

Alsike  clover 

84 

-2Q.7 

i.i 

Orchard  grass 

4.0 

42.4 

1.4 

Mixed  grasses 

4.2 

42.O 

1.3 

Timothy               

2.8 

42.4 

1.3 

Redtop       

4.8 

46.9 

I.O 

Barley  hay      
Kentucky  blue  grass    .... 
Oat  hay 

5-7 
4.4 

4  7 

43-6 
40.2 
^6.7 

I.O 

0.7 

1.7 

Fodder  corn         .... 

2  S 

34.6 

1.2 

Corn  stover 

1.4 

31.2 

O.7 

TABLE    B.     COMPARISON   OF   GRAIN   FEEDS    WITH   ALFALFA 

HAY 

(Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds) 


FEEDS 

POUNDS 
PROTEIN 

POUNDS 
CARBOHYDRATES 

POUNDS 
FAT 

Alfalfa  hay 

II  7 

A.O  O 

I  O 

Wheat  bran  (spring)     .... 
Kernel  corn 

II.9 

7  8 

42.O 

66  8 

2-5 

I  O 

Corn  meal       

6  7 

f)A      1 

A     -7 

Oats       

10  o 

ro  2 

•2  e 

Barley 

8  4 

fir  ? 

i  6 

Wheat   

8  8 

U5'O 
6?  s 

T   r 

Buckwheat     

8  i 

48  2 

?  8 

158  ALFALFA 

Correcting  Acid  Soils  for  Alfalfa.  --  The  natural  home  for 
alfalfa  is  on  limestone  soils  or  other  soils  that  are  well  sup- 
plied with  lime.  No  matter  how  favorable  other  conditions 
may  be,  if  the  soil  is  sour,  it  will  be  necessary  to  neutralize 
the  acidity  before  it  will  be  possible  to  obtain  good 
results. 

Acid  land  can  occasionally  be  detected  by  plants  such  as 
sheep  sorrel,  horsetails,  and  mosses  that  thrive  on  it. 
It  can  always  be  determined  by  testing  it  with  blue  litmus 
paper  in  the  following  manner.  Take  some  moist  earth 
from  a  few  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
press  it  firmly  over  a  strip  of  blue  litmus  paper.  Do  not 
handle  the  litmus  paper  when  the  hands  are  moist  as  the 
perspiration  from  them  may  cause  the  paper  to  show  an 
acid  reaction  when  no  acid  is  present  in  the  soil.  After 
the  paper  has  remained  in  the  soil  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes, 
the  litmus  will  change  in  color  from  a  blue  to  a  pink  or  red, 
if  the  soil  is  acid.  This  acidity  must  be  corrected  before 
alfalfa  can  be  grown  to  advantage. 

Acidity  can  be  corrected  either  through  the  application 
of  pulverized  limestone,  dry  marl,  or  slaked  lime.  The 
best  results  seem  to  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  limestone  or 
marl.  No  evil  results  follow  their  use  as  is  occasionally 
the  case  with  caustic  lime.  Over  an  acre  of  ground  there 
should  be  scattered  two  to  three  tons  of  pulverized  raw 
limestone  or  one  to  two  tons  of  marl.  Heavy  applications 
of  barnyard  manure  seem  to  benefit  most  acid  soil  suffi- 
ciently to  get  a  catch  of  alfalfa.  After  alfalfa  has  become 
well  established  on  land  high  in  fertility  it  seems  to  thrive 
even  on  acid  soils.  The  application  of  lime  has  a  beneficial 
effect  on  leguminous  plants  other  than  merely  correcting 
the  acidity  of  the  soil. 


ENEMIES   AND    DISEASES  159 

Enemies  and  Diseases.  —  Like  most  plants  alfalfa  has 
its  enemies  and  diseases  which  are  troublesome  under 
certain  conditions  in  some  sections.  Alfalfa  dodder,  a 
parasitic  plant  which  twines  itself  around  the  alfalfa  plant 
and  lives  upon  its  juices,  often  ruins  fields  of  alfalfa.  The 
dodder  seed  is  nearly  the  same  size  and  color  as  the  alfalfa 
seed  and  is  not  readily  noticed.  When  alfalfa  seed  comes 
from  infested  fields  it  is  contaminated  with  this  pest.  If 
sown  with  the  alfalfa  seed,  the  dodder  will  not  be  noticed 
until  discovered  in  the  growing  field.  When  considerable 
areas  of  the  field  are  found  to  be  infested  it  is  best  to  plow 
the  field  and  run  to  corn  or  grain  crops  for  a  series  of  two  or 
three  years  before  reseeding  to  alfalfa.  Many  of  the  states 
now  have  seed  inspection  laws  and  a  penalty  is  attached 
to  selling  seed  contaminated  with  mustard,  dodder,  buck- 
horn,  and  other  obnoxious  weed  seeds. 

In  seed-producing  sections  leaf  spot  is  quite  common, 
and  often  the  crop  is  materially  reduced  or  entirely  ruined. 
When  leaf  spot,  mildew,  or  rust  makes  its  appearance  it  is 
best  to  cut  the  crop  at  once  for  hay.  The  succeeding  crop 
may  be  entirely  free  from  these  diseases. 

Gophers  and  prairie  dogs  often  injure  fields  of  alfalfa 
by  burrowing  in  the  ground  and  eating  the  alfalfa  roots. 
Trapping  and  poisoning  the  animals  seem  to  be  most  ef- 
fective. Blister  beetles,  army  worms,  and  grasshoppers  are 
destructive,  at  times. 

EXERCISES 

1.  If  a  2o-acre  field  is  seeded  at  the  rate  of  16  pounds  of 
alfalfa  seed  per  acre  and  the  seed  costs  20  cents  per  pound,  what 
is  the  cost  of  the  necessary  seed  ? 

2.  Bring  to  school  for  class  use  specimens  of  nodule-bearing 
roots  of  sweet  clover,  red  clover,  and  alfalfa. 


160  ALFALFA 

HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Establish  a  plot  of  alfalfa  containing  four  square  rods  in 
the  following  manner.      Select  well-drained  soil  suited  to  the 
alfalfa  plant.     When  ready  for  seeding  after  the  soil  has  been 
prepared  according  to  directions  given  in  this  chapter,  spread 
over  this  plot,  distributing  as  evenly  as  possible,  about  fifty 
pounds  of  finely  divided  air-slaked  lime  and  harrow  it  in  thor- 
oughly.     Just  before   seeding,  inoculate  the  soil  with  about 
the  same  amount  of  alfalfa  or  sweet  clover  soil  and  harrow 
immediately.     The  plot  is  then  ready  for  seeding  in  the  regular 
way. 

2.  Sow  alfalfa  seed  with  and  without  a  nurse  crop. 

3.  Sow  alfalfa  seed  after  removing  an  early  crop  from  the 
land. 

4.  Sow  alfalfa  seed  with  and  without  soil  inoculation. 

5.  Mix  a  quart  of  alfalfa  seed  per  acre  with  grass  or  clover 
seed  to  establish  alfalfa  plants  as  bacteria  distributors. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  HAY  GRASSES 

MOST  of  the  hay  and  pasture  crops  are  either  legumes  or 
grasses.  Clover  and  alfalfa  are  legumes  although  they 
are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  grass  crops.  The  chief  hay 
plants  that,  in  a  strict  botanical  sense,  belong  to  the  grass 
family  are  timothy,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  brome  grass, 
orchard  grass,  and  redtop. 

TIMOTHY 

Of  all  the  hay  grasses  grown  under  cultivation,  timothy 
ranks  first  and  brings  the  best  prices  on  the  market.  Its 
clean  leaves  and  stems  and  the  readiness  with  which  it 
cures  without  injury  after  cutting  has  made  it  a  desirable 
hay  for  feeding  horses. 

Varieties.  —  No  distinct  varieties  of  timothy  are  as  yet 
found  upon  the  market  and  it  was  not  until  quite  recently 
that  any  attempt  had  been  made  to  breed  definite  strains. 

Testing  the  Seeds.  —  All  timothy  seed  should  be  tested 
for  germination  before  sowing,  and  unless  the  germination 
runs  80  per  cent  or  higher,  the  seed  should  be  regarded 
with  suspicion.  Seeds  that  have  retained  the  hulls  are 
supposed  to  be  superior  to  the  hulled  seeds  as  it  is  believed 
that  they  retain  moisture  and  withstand  adverse  conditions 
better.  Experimental  data  seem  to  show  that  it  makes 
little  difference  in'  the  results  whether  the  seed  is  naked  or 
inclosed  within  the  hull. 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. —  II       l6l 


162 


THE  HAY   GRASSES 


Sowing  the  Seed.  --  Timothy  should  be  grown  in  a  four- 
year  or  five-year  rotation,  in  which  the  plan  is  to  get  a  hay 
crop  in  the  third  year  and  another  in  the  fourth  year.  It 
is  usually  sown  in  connection  with  clover,  using  about 
four  quarts  of  clover  seed  and  three  quarts  of  timothy  seed 
per  acre.  This  mixture  is  sown  with  barley,  oats,  or  wheat 

as  a  nurse  crop.      If   the   seasons  are 

favorable,  the  first  year  after  seeding 
two  cuttings  of  clover  hay  can  be  se- 
cured, and  a  crop  of  timothy  for  hay 
or  seed  can  be  obtained  the  next  year. 
The  third  year  a  crop  of  hay  can  be 
harvested  or  the  field  can  be  pastured. 
If  the  field  is  left  to  timothy  for  two 
years,  the  fifth  year  the  ground  should 
be  plowed  and  planted  in  corn,  pota- 
toes, peas,  or  beans.  The  land  should 
be  heavily  manured  if  run  to  timothy 
two  years,  as  the  timothy  crop  makes 
a  heavy  draft  on  soil  fertility.  It  is 
much  better  practice  to  grow  timothy 
in  a  four-year  rotation  in  which  only 
one  crop  of  hay  or  seed  is  taken  in  the 
Fig.88.-A"tLthyPiant  four-year  period.  The  usual  practice 

at  the  cutting  stage.         jg    to   SQW  the   geed   Jn   the  spring)  but  it 

may  be  sown  in  the  fall  with  wheat  or  rye.  If  sown  quite 
early  in  the  fall,  it  usually  withstands  the  winters  and  the 
clover  can  be  sown  on  the  growing  crop  in  early  spring. 
A  grass  seeder  attachment  to  a  grain  drill  or  a  broadcast 
seeder  is  commonly  used  for  grass  seeding  where  the  ground 
is  in  proper  condition  for  the  use  of  farm  machinery.  On 
newly  cleared  and  rocky  lands  a  hand  or  wheelbarrow  seeder 


CUTTING  AND   CURING   THE   HAY 


163 


Fig.  89.  —  A  mowing  machine. 

may  be  used  to  advantage.     The  legal  weight  of  timothy 
seed  in  most  states  is  45  pounds  per  bushel. 

Cutting  and  Curing  the  Hay.  —  For  best  results  timothy 
should  be  cut  when  it  has  passed  its  first  bloom.  If  cut 
in  the  bloom,  it  is  apt  to  be  somewhat  dusty.  Timothy  is 
easy  to  cure  and  should  be  tedded  the  afternoon  of  the  day 


Fig.  90.  —  A  side-delivery  rake. 


1 64 


THE   HAY   GRASSES 


when  cut  or  the  day  after  and  raked  into  windrows  and  put 
into  medium-sized  cocks.  If  left  in  the  cocks  for  two  or 
three  days,  it  goes  through  a  sweat  and  will  not  heat  or 


Fig.  91.        A  modern  hay  loader. 


tey stonr  \'i(  tc  ( '<>. 


mold  when  put  into  the  mow.  Where  large  acreages  of 
timothy  are  grown  for  hay  the  hay  loader  may  be  used  to 
advantage  a  day  or  two  after  cutting.  A  side-delivery 
rake  is  an  excellent  piece  of  farm  machinery  for  raking  up 
the  hay  in  convenient  form  for  the  use  of  the  hay  loader. 
The  hay  may  be  stacked,  but  a  much  better  practice  is  to 
store  it  away  in  large  barns  or  sheds. 

Marketing  the  Hay. --The  most  convenient  way  to 
market  the  hay  is  to  bale  the  hay  direct  from  the  mow  and 
at  a  convenient  time  haul  it  to  market.  Timothy  and  wild 
hay  are  marketed  loose  when  sold  to  local  markets  where 


PASTURING  165 

there  are  stables  and  lofts  for  storing  it  away.  Timothy 
is  occasionally  baled  direct  from  the  field,  but  on  account 
of  its  being  only  partially  cured  and  not  having  gone  through 
the  sweat  it  is  liable  to  heat  and  mold;  so  this  method  is 
not  considered  good  practice.  Where  hay  is  sold  from  the 
farm  the  farmer  is  wise  to  sell  his  timothy  and  retain 
his  clover,  especially  for  feeding  cows,  sheep,  and  young 
stock.  To  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  farm  the  farmer 
should  plan  to  use  more  clover  and  less  timothy. 

Pasturing.  —  Timothy  is  a  rapid  grower  and  the  grass 
is  relished  by  all  farm  animals  especially  in  the  spring  and 
fall.  If  pastured  lightly,  it  is  good  practice  to  run  over  the 
pasture  in  midsummer  with  the  mower,  taking  off  the  sur- 
plus hay.  When  this  practice  is  followed  the  fall  pasture 
is  very  much  improved.  If  a  permanent  pasture  is  desired, 
Kentucky  blue  grass,  alsike  clover,  and  redtop  seed  should 
be  mixed  in  equal  parts  by  weight  with  the  timothy  seed 


Fig.  92.  —  A  timothy  pasture  after  cutting  off  the  hay. 

before  sowing.  When  harvested  for  seed  it  can  be  readily 
cut  with  a  grain  harvester,  placed  in  shocks,  and  threshed 
with  a  grain  thresher. 


i66 


THE  HAY   GRASSES 


Habits  of  Growth.  —  The  erectness  of  the  plant  is  one 
of  its  strong  characteristics  and  one  of  the  reasons  for  the 
good  quality  of  its  hay.  It  seldom  lodges,  and  if  carried 
down  by  a  severe  storm,  it  soon  regains  its  erect  position. 
The  plant  usually  grows  three  to  four  feet  in  height,  and  in 
a  fertile  soil  it  may  reach  the  height  of  five  feet.  The  root 

growth  is  strong  and  vigorous  and 

makes  a  firm  sod,  especially  when 
mixed  with  blue  grass.  The  sod 
rots  readily  and  the  root  growth  is 
thus  converted  into  humus.  Timothy 
exerts  a  heavy  draft  upon  the  soil 
without  returning  any  fertility  to 
the  land  except  that  portion  retained 
in  the  root  growth. 

KENTUCKY  BLUE   GRASS 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  or  June  grass, 
is  the  best  pasture  grass  of  the  United 
States,  and  is  used  extensively  over 
a  large  area  of  the  country.  Like 
all  of  our  native  grasses  it  is  perennial 
in  character.  When  a  field  is  once 
seeded  to  blue  grass  a  permanent 
pasture  may  be  retained  for  many 
years  without  reseeding. 
Sowing  the  Seed.  —  Blue  grass  is  usually  sown  with 
timothy  or  some  other  erect  grass  when  the  plan  is  to  cut 
it  for  hay.  If  seeded  alone,  it  usually  bends  over  and  lies 
so  closely  to  the  ground  that  it  is  hard  to  mow  and  to 
handle  after  being  cut.  When  it  is  grown  in  combination 
with  other  grasses  it  is  kept  erect  and  the  ripening  is  so 


Fig-  93-  —  Kentucky  blue 
grass. 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS 


167 


1 68  THE  HAY  GRASSES 

retarded  that  it  can  be  secured  at  the  proper  cutting  stage 
with  the  other  grasses.  It  grows  so  close  to  the  ground 
that  it  forms  a  thick  mat  after  two  or  three  years  and 
gradually  crowds  out  the  other  grasses.  Blue  grass  grows 
so  extensively  in  uncultivated  fields  and  pastures  and  so 
fills  the  land  with  seed  that  when  the  fields  are  sown  to 
clover  and  other  grasses  it  often  comes  on  voluntarily  and 
is  soon  quite  noticeable. 

Harvesting  the  Seed.  --The  larger  portion  of  the  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass  seed  is  grown  in  Kentucky.  It  is  harvested 
as  soon  as  the  heads  and  stems  turn  yellow.  The  seed 
is  stripped  from  the  plants  by  special  machinery  for  that 
purpose.  These  strippings  are  put  in  windrows  and  left 
to  cure.  The  windrows  should  be  stirred  frequently  while 
curing.  If  the  heads  become  heated,  the  germinating 
power  of  the  seed  is  injured.  After  the  heads  are  thor- 
oughly cured  they  are  run  through  special  machinery  which 
takes  out  the  seed  and  cleans  it  for  market.  The  germina- 
tion of  Kentucky  blue  grass  seed  is  low  even  when  good 
care  is  taken  in  harvesting  and  curing  it.  A  test  of  60  per 
cent  to  65  per  cent  is  considered  exceptionally  good.  The 
yield  of  well-cleaned  seed  weighing  24  pounds  per  bushel 
is  approximately  100  pounds  per  acre.  When  left  in  the 
chaff  the  yield  runs  somewhat  higher. 

Uses.  —  Blue  grass  is  a  great  pasture  and  lawn  grass 
and  is  grown  for  that  purpose  more  than  for  hay.  It  will 
grow  in  the  shade  better  than  any  of  our  grazing  grasses 
and  is  consequently  used  much  in  open  wood  lot  pastures. 
When  used  in  combination  with  other  grass  seeds  for  pas- 
ture or  hay  about  ten  or  twelve  pounds  of  seed  is  sown  per 
acre.  When  used  alone  for  lawn  or  golf  grounds  it  is  sown 
frequently  at  the  rate  of  forty  to  fifty  pounds  of  seed  JKT 


BROME   GRASS  169 

acre.  For  lawns  a  mixture  of  30  pounds  of  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  15  pounds  of  red  top  and  6  pounds  of  white 
clover  per  acre  is  recommended.  Blue  grass  does  best  in 
a  medium  clay  loam  that  is  well  supplied  with  humus  and 
lime.  It  does  not  do  well  in  semiarid  regions  or  on  exceed- 
ingly heavy  clay  or  light  sand. 

BROME   GRASS 

Brome  grass  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  from 
Europe  and  is  now  grown  quite  generally  on  the  Great 
Plains,  where  timothy  and  blue  grass  do  not  thrive.  It 
has  been  grown  for  centuries  on  the  plains  of  Russia  and 
is  there  regarded  with  great  favor.  It  roots  deeply,  con- 
sequently stands  drought  well,  and  makes  an  excellent 
early  spring  and  late  fall  pasture.  It  is  not  considered  so 
good  for  hay  as  timothy  and  will  not  become  popular  in 
those  states  in  which  timothy,  clover,  and  blue  grass  can 
be  readily  grown. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  —  Brome  grass  is  usually  sown  in  the 
spring  like  timothy,  blue  grass,  or  redtop,  using  about 
twenty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  when  sown  alone,  or  about 
eight  pounds  when  sown  with  a  grass  mixture.  It  may, 
like  timothy,  be  sown  with  early  seeding  of  fall  rye  or 
winter  wheat.  If  sown  in  the  fall  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, it  makes  a  good  pasture  the  next  fall. 

The  temptation  to  sow  brome  grass  on  fields  infested 
with  quack  grass,  and  then  harvest  it  for  seed,  has  been  the 
cause  of  much  of  the  brome  grass  seed  becoming  contam- 
inated with  quack  grass  seed.  Farmers  purchasing  brome 
grass  seed  should  see  that  it  is  free  from  such  contamina- 
tion. When  there  is  doubt  as  to  its  purity,  it  is  best  to  send 
a  sample  for  inspection  to  the  seed-testing  department  of 


1 70  THE  HAY  GRASSES 

the  state  experiment  station  or  to  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

Harvesting.  —  Brome  grass  grows  from  four  to  five  feet 
tall  and  stands  erect,  so  that  if  desired  for  seed,  it  can  be 
cut  and  bound  with  a  grain  harvester.  It  should  stand 
in  the  shock  until  dry  and  then  be  stored  away  in  barns 
like  grain  or  brought  direct  from  the  field  to  the  thresher. 
Like  timothy  it  is  threshed  readily  with  a  grain  thresher. 

Brome  grass  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  in  blossom.  It 
cures  well  and  is  handled  the  same  as  other  hay  grasses. 
Its  feeding  value  compares  favorably  with  that  of  timothy. 
After  cutting,  if  moisture  is  sufficient,  it  grows  up  so  as  to 
furnish  excellent  fall  pasture.  It  is  not  readily  injured 
through  pasturing,  as  it  forms  a  very  heavy  sod.  Brome 
grass  fields  are  greatly  helped  by  disking  deeply  after  the 
second  crop  of  hay  has  been  removed.  When  brome  grass 
is  growrn  for  hay  it  is  well  to  grow  it  in  a  four-year  rotation 
like  timothy,  planting  corn  or  some  other  cultivated  crop 
on  the  brome  grass  sod.  On  account  of  the  numerous 
rootstocks  in  the  ground  it  requires  a  sharp  plow  and  much 
power  to  break  the  sod.  Unless  the  sod  is  turned  com- 
pletely over  the  numerous  roots  are  apt  to  send  up  new 

shoots. 

ORCHARD   GRASS 

Orchard  grass  is  not  grown  so  generally  as  timothy  or 
blue  grass  in  the  United  States.  It  is  raised  most  abun- 
dantly in  the  states  south  of  the  blue  grass  and  timothy 
regions.  It  is  also  becoming  quite  extensively  grown  in  the 
Pacific  States. 

Orchard  grass  grows  two  to  three  feet  tall  and  is  readily 
recognized  by  its  smooth  stems  and  by  the  panicles  which 
consist  of  one-sided  clusters  on  top  of  the  branching  stems. 


ORCHARD   GRASS 


171 


Uses.  —  Orchard  grass  is  grown  for  hay,  seed,  and  pas- 
ture. As  a  hay  crop  it  is  inferior  to  timothy  and  redtop, 
but  ranks  well  as  a  pasture  grass  for  early  spring  and  late 
fall.  It  does  not  spread  by  rootstocks  nor  does  it  branch 
or  stool  out  strongly.  It  grows  in 
bunches  or  tufts  and  does  not  cover  the 
ground  completely  like  redtop,  timothy, 
or  blue  grass,  hence  the  lower  yields  of 
hay  per  acre  and  the  necessity  of  re- 
seeding  more  often. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  —  The  weight  of 
orchard  grass  seed  varies  from  fourteen 
to  twenty-two  pounds  per  measured 
bushel,  depending  on  how  closely  it  is 
graded.  From  a  bushel  to  one  and  a 
half  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  should  be 
used  when  sown  alone  or  about  one 
fourth  bushel  when  sown  as  a  mixture. 
When  desired  for  seed  it  is  left  to  ripen, 
and  is  cut  and  bound,  like  timothy, 
with  a  harvester.  After  it  has  been 
well  cured  in  the  shock  or  mow,  it  is 

Fig.  95.  — Orchard  grass. 

threshed  with  a  grain  thresher,  especially 
arranged  with   proper  screens  for    threshing   grass   seed. 
Kentucky  is  the  leading  state  in  the  production  of  orchard 
grass  seed. 

REDTOP 

Redtop,  a  perennial  grass,  is  a  native  of  the  United 
States  and  grows  wild  over  an  extensive  area.  As  a  hay 
crop  it  ranks  closely  with  timothy  and  blue  grass.  It  gives 
good  yields  on  undrained  lands  that  are  too  low  and  wet 


172  THE   HAY   GRASSES 

for  the  production  of  timothy  or  blue  grass.  It  will  do 
better  on  acid  soils  than  any  of  our  other  hay  grasses. 
Redtop  is  an  erect  plant,  about  three  feet  in  height.  The 
root  growth  is  shallow  but  branching,  which  enables  it  to 
make  a  dense  sod  that  covers  the  entire  surface  of  the 
ground. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  —  When  sown  for  a  meadow  about 
twenty  pounds  of  clean  seed  should  be  used  per  acre.  In 
a  grass  mixture  of  timothy  and  alsike  clover  it  is  well  to 
use  10  pounds  of  redtop,  5  pounds  of  timothy,  and  5 
pounds  of  alsike  clover.  On  low,  undrained  lands  redtop 
and  alsike  clover  should  be  sown  in  combination,  as  the  hay 
or  pasture  will  be  of  better  quality  and  relished  more  by 
farm  animals  if  grown  as  a  mixture.  The  seed,  if  free  from 
chaff,  can  be  handled  by  a  grass  seeder.  When  sowing 
redtop  seed  mixed  with  chaff,  better  results  will  be  secured 
if  the  sowing  is  done  by  hand. 

Harvesting.  —  Redtop  reaches  the  cutting  stage  about 
two  or  three  weeks  later  than  blue  grass  or  common  red 
clover.  When  grown  in  combination  with  alsike  clover, 
they  both  reach  the  proper  cutting  stage  for  hay  at  the  same 
time.  Redtop  is  cut  with  a  mower  and  cured  the  same  as 
timothy.  It  cures  readily  and  sheds  water  well  when 
stacked. 

HOME   PROJECTS 

i.  Prepare  sheaves  of  grasses,  clover,  and  alfalfa  for  show 
purposes  in  the  following  manner.  Collect  tall,  healthy,  leafy 
samples  having  medium-sized  stems,  and  cure  slowly  in  a  dark 
room  or  shady  place  where  free  circulation  of  air  can  be  obtained 
without  a  strong  draft.  Do  not  pile  the  plants  too  thickly  or 
the  leaves  will  turn  yellow  or  red  and  may  mold.  Stirring  will 


HOME   PROJECTS  173 

also  help  to  cure  them  properly.  Put  up  neatly  in  bundles  or 
sheaves  about  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base.  Tie 
these  bundles  with  a  strong  cord.  Do  not  use  wide  ribbons  or 
binder  twine.  For  the  timothy  and  blue  grass  samples  choose 
large  heads  and  long  stems  and  strip  off  the  leaves  of  each  stalk 
before  making  the  sheaf.  With  alfalfa  and  clover  the  dry 
leaves  may  drop  off  in  handling.  This  may  be  prevented  by 
covering  your  samples  with  a  damp  cloth  for  a  short  time  before 
making  up  the  sheaf,  but  do  not  get  your  samples  too  damp. 
Collect  the  clover  when  in  blossom,  the  alfalfa  when  just  be- 
ginning to  bloom,  and  timothy  and  other  grasses  when  the  heads 
have  passed  the  blossoming  stage.  Prepare  two  or  more 
sheaves  for  your  county  fair  or  other  grain  shows. 

2.  Grow  a  plot  of  timothy  seeded  at  the  rate  of  6  quarts 
per  acre.     For  comparison,  also  a  plot  of  clover  and  timothy 
mixture,  sown  at  the  rate  of  4  quarts  of  timothy  and  2  quarts 
of  clover. 

3.  Prepare  samples  of  clover  seed  and  timothy  seed  for  ex- 
hibition purposes. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
POTATOES 

THE  potato  is  an  American  plant,  and  was  introduced 
into  European  countries  soon  after  the  discovery  of  America. 
In  Europe  potatoes  did  not  readily  find  acceptance,  but 
the  American  colonists  regarded  them  with  more  favor, 
and  cultivated  them  to  a  considerable  extent.  Ireland 
was  the  first  of  the  European  countries  to  realize  the  im- 
portance of  the  potato  crop  and  grow  it  on  an  extensive 
scale.  The  potato  became  so  common  in  Ireland  that  it 
is  now  generally  known  as  the  Irish  potato  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  southern  sweet  potato. 

Classification.  —  Potatoes  are  divided  into  two  great 
classes  commonly  known  as  early  and  late  potatoes.  In 
each  class  are  numerous  varieties.  Seedsmen  have  used 
the  term  "  variety  "  in  a  careless  way.  Many  of  the  so- 
called  varieties  are  the  same  kind  of  potatoes.  The 
introduction  of  many  varieties  has  been  more  of  a  hin- 
drance than  a  help  to  the  advancement  of  potato  culture. 
Often  several  types  of  potatoes  are  grown  on  the  same 
farm,  and  in  the  same  hill,  or  row.  Mixed  varieties  of 
potatoes  do  not  sell  well  on  the  market.  Among  the 
standard  varieties  that  are  now  receiving  much  attention 
are  the  following :  EARLY  :  Early  Ohio,  Early  Rose,  Bliss- 
Triumph,  and  Irish  Cobbler.  LATE  :  Rural  New  Yorker. 
Green  Mountain,  Burbank,  and  Peerless. 

174 


HABITS  OF   GROWTH  175 

The  period  of  growth  of  the  early  potatoes  varies  from 
70  to  100  days,  while  the  late  sorts  require  from  no  to  130 
days  for  maturity. 

Except  those  grown  for  special  purposes,  where  extra 
prices  can  be  secured,  the  late  potatoes  are  more  popular 
and  are  grown  more  widely  for  the  market. 

Habits  of  Growth.  —  The  tuber  is  not  the  true  potato 
seed  although  it  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  such.  The  true 


Fig.  96.  —  Rural  New  Yorker  potatoes.     This  is  a  late  variety. 

seeds  of  the  potato  are  contained  in  the  potato  ball  which 
is  found  on  the  top  of  the  plant  following  the  blossoming 
period.  When  the  desire  is  to  establish  new  varieties 
the  true  seed  is  used.  The  potatoes  grown  from  the  true 
seed  often  differ  widely  in  shape,  size,  and  color  from  the 
tubers  grown  on  the  plant  from  which  the  seed  ball  is  taken. 
It  requires  several  years  of  patient  selection  to  develop  a 
good  type  of  potatoes  grown  from  seed. 

Potatoes  do  not  mix  or  cross,  but  will  hold  firmly  to  the 
original  breed   of   the   foundation   stock   of   tubers.     The 


176  POTATOES 

variety  may  be  modified  by  selection  and  by  the  condition 
under  which  they  are  grown,  but  the  type  remains  the  same. 
The  blossom  of  the  potato  may  be  cross-fertilized,  but  this 
does  not  appear  in  any  way  to  affect  the  tuber ;  however, 
the  true  seed  or  potato  ball  is  materially  affected  and  these 
seeds  if  planted  will  not  reproduce  the  variety  of  potatoes 
from  which  they  are  taken. 

Uses.  —  The  chief  use  of  potatoes  is  for  human  food.  A 
considerable  quantity  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  starch, 
potato  flour,  animal  food,  and  alcohol,  when  the  price  of 
potatoes  is  sufficiently  low  to  admit  of  their  use  for  such 
purposes.  Large  potato  centers  often  use  the  small  or  ir- 
regular potatoes  that  are  not  suited  for  market  for  starch 
and  alcohol.  The  European  countries  utilize  their  potato 
crops  to  much  better  advantage  and  with  less  waste  than 
the  United  States.  When  the  market  price  of  potatoes  is 
low  farmers  make  use  of  them  for  the  feeding  of  farm 
animals. 

All  farm  animals  including  poultry  relish  potatoes. 
They  can  be  fed  raw  to  advantage  to  all  animals  except 
poultry  and  hogs.  For  these  they  should  be  cooked. 

Storing  for  Seed.  —  It  is  important  to  keep  seed 
potatoes  in  a  cool  cellar  so  as  to  prevent  sprouting,  for  if 
allowed  to  sprout  much  plant  food  is  removed  and  the 
vitality  is  materially  reduced.  If  the  windows  and  doors 
leading  to  the  potatoes  in  storage  are  left  open  during  the 
night  and  closed  during  the  day  after  warm  weather  arrives 
the  arrangement  will  assist  in  keeping  the  cellar  cool.  If 
the  potatoes  have  sprouted,  the  sprouts  should  be  removed 
before  planting. 

Planting.  -  -  The  tubers  used  for  seed  are  usually  cut  be- 
fore planting.  The  cutting  is  of  ten  done  by  hand.  Machines 


SEED   BED 


177 


are  now  used  for  cutting  where  large  quantities  of  seed  are 
needed  for  planting.  Potatoes  are  planted  in  hills  or  in  drills. 
Hills  are  placed  approximately  three  or  three  and  a  half 
feet  apart  and  seed  dropped  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three 
pieces  to  the  hill.  The  drill  method  is  now  used  generally 
where  large  acreages  are  planted.  When  planted  in  drills 
the  pieces  are  dropped  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  apart  in 
the  row  and  the  rows  are  usually  three  or  three  and  a  half 
feet  apart.  This  distance  admits  of  the  best  use  of  modern 
machinery  for  planting,  cultivating,  spraying,  and  digging. 
From  twelve  to  fifteen  bushels  of  seed  are  required  per  acre 
for  a  good  stand.  Only  good  sound  seed  should  be  planted. 
Immediately  after  planting,  the  fine-tooth  harrow  should 
be  run  over  the  field  and  continued  at  intervals  in  order 


Fig.  97.  —  Preparation  of  the  seed  bed  by  harrowing  and  rolling. 

is  at  the  left. 


The  potato  planter 


to  sprout  weed  seeds.  The  harrow  can  be  used  to  advan- 
tage even  after  the  potatoes  are  above  ground,  providing 
it  is  done  in  the  afternoon  of  a  fair  day  when  the  plants  are 
not  so  brittle  as  when  filled  with  moisture. 

Seed   Bed.  —  Potatoes    may  be  grown  on  any  fertile, 
well-drained    soil,    but   do   best  on    a   rich    sandy    loam, 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD.  —  12 


I 78  POTATOES 

abundantly  supplied  with  humus.  A  young  clover  field 
in  which  a  second  cutting  of  clover  has  been  turned  under 
in  the  fall  offers  fine  conditions  for  potato  planting  the 
following  season.  If  land  is  plowed  in  the  early  fall  and  left 
in  the  rough  during  the  winter,  it  can  readily  be  put  in  good 
tilth  by  disking  in  the  spring.  The  fine-tooth  harrow  should 
be  run  at  weekly  intervals  after  disking  to  prevent  baking, 
loss  of  moisture,  and  for  the  purpose  of  killing  weeds.  A 
deep,  mellow  seed  bed  well  supplied  with  fertility  is  essential 
for  large  yields  of  good-sized  potatoes.  Potatoes  should 
not  be  planted  on  heavy  clay  lands  that  are  not  properly 
drained  and  filled  with  humus.  Light  sandy  soil,  low  in 
fertility  and  humus  content,  should  also  be  avoided. 

The  plowing  under  of  clover  or  vetch  with  the  heavy 
application  of  barnyard  manure  will  soon  enable  one  to 
grow  potatoes  to  advantage  on  light,  sandy  soil  or  on  the 
heavy  clays,  provided  the  drainage  is  good.  One  should 
never  attempt  to  grow  potatoes  on  creek  or  river  bottoms 
that  overflow  periodically,  or  on  marsh  land  where  the 
ground-water  line  is  only  a  few  feet  beneath  the  surface. 
Peaty  marsh  lands  should  be  avoided  as  they  lack  uniformity 
in  character  and  the  soil  is  too  loose.  The  land  should  be 
uniform  in  tilth  and  fertility  in  order  to  assure  an  even 
growth  and  a  good  yield. 

Diseases.  —  Chief  among  -the  diseases  that  affect  po- 
tatoes may  be  mentioned  early  and  late  blight,  scab,  and 
black  leg. 

Both  early  and  late  blight  in  their  first  stages  affect  the 
leaves  of  the  plants  and  later  the  stems  and  tubers.  These 
diseases  are  controlled  by  spraying  at  intervals  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture.  This  mixture  is  made  as  follows:  dis- 
solve 5  pounds  of  high-grade  stone  lime  in  50  gallons  of 


DISEASES  179 

water.     In  another  cask  containing  50  gallons  of   water 
suspend  5  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  (blue  vitriol)  in  a 


Fig.  98.        Potatoes  sprayed  for  prevention  of  blight  on  right.     Potatoes  not  sprayed 

on  left. 


gunny  sack  and  place  just  beneath  the  surface  until  dis- 
solved. When  well  dissolved  the  lime  and  the  copper  sul- 
phate solutions  should  be  mixed.  This  is  best  done  if  the 
solutions  are  taken  in  pailfuls  from  each  cask  alternately 
and  put  into  a  third.  It  is  well  to  test  the  solution  to 
determine  its  effect  upon  the  leaves  of  the  plants.  This 
can  be  done  by  putting  a  bright  knife  blade  into  the 
solution.  If  the  blade  remains  bright  the  solution  will  not 
injure  the  plants,  but  if  the  blade  takes  on  a  coppery  hue 
more  lime  should  be  added.  The  lime  prevents  the  copper 
sulphate  solution  from  injuring  the  plants.  It  should  then 
be  put  into  a  spraying  machine  and  sprayed  on  the  plants 
in  the  form  of  a  fine  mist.  It  requires  about  fifty  gallons  of 


i8o  POTATOES 

the  mixture  to  spray  one  acre.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  may  also  control  other  fungus  diseases  not  fully 
understood  at  the  present  time. 

Potato  scab  is  a  disease  that  affects  the  potato  ex- 
ternally, making  ugly  blotches  upon  the  surface.  The  dis- 
ease is  carried  by  the  germs  which  remain  upon  the  seed 
potato  or  are  left  in  the  ground,  thus  affecting  the  succeed- 
ing crop.  The  scab  disease  lives  in  the  ground  for  several 
years.  After  scabby  potatoes  have  been  grown  on  a  piece 
of  land,  no  more  potatoes  should  be  grown  on  this  piece 
for  at  least  six  years. 

Where  potatoes  have  become  affected  with  scab  the 
grower  should  secure  seed  potatoes  that  are  free  from  this 
disease,  or  treat  the  affected  ones  by  submerging  sacks  of 
the  potatoes  for  two  hours  in  a  solution  made  by  adding 
one  pint  of  formaldehyde  to  30  gallons  of  water.  Other 
treatments  may  be  used,  but  the  formaldehyde  is  most 
simple  and  effective.  Whole  potatoes  should  be  treated 
and  cut  for  seed  after  treatment.  If  potatoes  so  treated 
are  planted  on  scab-free  ground  the  disease  will  not  be  found 
on  the  succeeding  crop. 

Insect  enemies.  —  The  Colorado  beetle,  more  commonly 
known  as  the  potato  bug,  is  the  chief  insect  enemy. 
Other  insect  enemies  that  do  more  or  less  damage  are  the 
flea  beetle,  blister  beetle,  and  grasshopper. 

For  control  of  potato  insects,  arsenical  poisons  are 
used.  Paris  green  and  arsenate  of  lead  are  the  poisons 
commonly  applied.  A  Paris  green  solution  is  made  by 
placing  2  pounds  of  standard  Paris  green  in  50  gallons  of 
water.  If  sprayed  on  the  potato  plants  after  the  dew  has 
dried  off  in  the  morning  on  a  day  that  promises  fair,  the  first 
batch  of  insects  will  usually  be  controlled.  It  is  often  neces- 


HARVESTING  181 

sary  to  use  a  second  application  a  week  or  two  after  the 
first  one.  If  rain  follows  within  a  few  hours  after  the  first 
application  it  is  best  to  respray  at  once.  Paris  green  may 
be  added  to  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and  the  potatoes  can 
thereby  be  sprayed  for  the  prevention  of  blight  and  insects 
at  the  same  time. 

Instead  of  Paris  green,  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  added  to 
the  Bordeaux  mixture  at  the  rate  of  3  pounds  to  50  gallons 


Fig.  99.  —  A  Wisconsin  potato  field.     Note  the  quantity  of  potatoes. 

of  the  solution.  The  arsenate  of  lead  sticks  to  the  potato 
leaves  better  than  does  Paris  green,  particularly  in  damp 
weather. 

Harvesting.  —  Potatoes  should  be  harvested  when  in 
proper  condition  for  marketing  or  storing  away  for  winter 
use.  The  proper  condition  is  indicated  by  the  drying 
up  of  the  vines.  The  vines  of  ripe  potatoes  when  pulled 
free  themselves  from  the  tubers.  Unripe  potatoes  adhere 


i 82  POTATOES 

quite  firmly  to  the  stalks.     The  skin  or  outside  covering 
of  the  potato  will  rub  off  readily  if  not  properly  matured. 


l^ig.  100        Hill  selection  of  seed  potatoes.     The  hills  piled  separately  are  to  be  used 

for  seed. 

and  the  potato  will  not  be  firm  and  crisp  when  cut.  In 
order  to  keep  well  in  storage  potatoes  should  be  fully 
matured. 

Where  potatoes  are  grown  on  a  commercial  scale  they 
are  harvested  by  machinery.  Several  good  potato  diggers 
are  now  on  the  market.  Potatoes  should  be  allowed  to 
dry  off  before  being  stored  or  taken  to  the  market.  This  is 
done  by  putting  them  in  piles  where  they  can  be  aired. 
They  should  not  be  left  on  the  ground  subject  to  strong  sun- 
light or  dew,  but  should  be  covered  lightly  with  straw  or 
dry  potato  vines. 

Storing  Potatoes.  —  Potatoes  are  stored  in  cellars  or 
warehouses  in  which  they  can  be  kept  at  a  low  temperature, 
about  34°  to  40°  Fahrenheit.  Often  they  are  put  in  pits 
and  if  properly  cared  for,  come  through  the  winter  in 


POTATO  IMPROVEMENT 


'83 


excellent  shape.  Whether  potatoes  are  put  in  pits  or 
stored  in  cellars,  provision  should  be  made  for  proper  venti- 
lation or  they  will  deteriorate  rapidly.  Potatoes  should  be 
carefully  sorted  and  the  small  and  damaged  ones  should  be 
rejected  before  storing  or  marketing. 

Potato  Improvement.  -  It  has  been  found  advantageous 
for  a  whole  community  to  grow  one  standard  potato  instead 
of  several  varieties,  as  a  better  price  can  be  obtained  from 
one  straight  grade  than  if  mixed  shipments  are  made.  The 
proper  marketing  of  potatoes  is  very  essential  to  the  success 
of  the1  growers. 

Much  improvement  is  being  brought  about  through 
ra refill  work  with  distinct  varieties.  By  intensive  selection 


Kif;    loi.       Green  Mountain  potatoes  after  improvement  by  two  years  of  hill  selection. 

of  seed  potatoes  for  type  and  disease  resistance,  a  good 
standard  marketable  potato  can  soon  be  established.  Such 
a  potato  ran  well  take  the  place  of  the  mixed  types  now 
so  often  found  in  many  communities. 


184 


POTATOES 


Hill  Selection.  —  The  method  of  improvement  known 
as  hill  selection  is  conducted  in  the  following  manner. 
Single  potatoes  are  cut  and  the  pieces  from  one  potato  only 
are  planted  in  a  single  hill.  During  the  growing  period 
the  characteristic  vine  growth  is  studied  carefully  and  any 
hills  that  show  disease  or  improper  vine  growth  are  marked 
and  discarded.  The  hills  showing  uniform,  healthy  growth 
are  left  to  ripen  and  are  harvested  separately.  There  will 


Fig.  102.  —  Only  hills  that  produce  uniform  size  potatoes  should  be  used  for  seed. 

be  a  wide  variation  of  the  productive  power  of  the  individual 
potatoes  used  as  seed.  The  hills  of  potatoes  showing  large 
yield  of  uniform  potatoes  should  be  placed  in  separate 
piles.  In  this  manner  a  few  hills  can  be  selected  that  have 
much  higher  powers  of  production  than  the  average.  This 
method  may  be  carried  forward  for  several  years  until  a  high 
yielding  standard  strain  of  potatoes  has  been  developed. 
Quality  as  well  as  quantity  is  considered  in  hill  selection. 


SCORING   POTATOES 


185 


SCORING    POTATOES 

i.   Judge   samples   of  potatoes,   using   the   following  score 
card  and  directions  for  scoring. 

POTATO   SCORE   CARD 

NAME  AND  NUMBER  OF  SCORER 

SAMPLE  NUMBER DATE 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

i.   Trueness  to  breed  type 

20 

2.   Uniformity  in  regard 
to  size      .... 

10 

3.    Conformity  in  regard 
to  shape   .... 

10 

4.   Eyes  shallow    .     .     . 

IO 

5.    Freedom    from    scab 
and  other  diseases 

IS 

6.    Freedom  from  injuries 

15 

7.    Percentage  of  food  to 
waste  

IO 

8.   Texture  of  tuber 

TO 

Total  

TOO 

i 

I 

DIRECTIONS   FOR  SCORING   POTATOES 

1.  If  the  potato  does  not  look  like  the  type  called  for  in  the 
name  of  the  sample  or  if  it  is  some  other  kind  of  potato,  cut  20 
points. 

2.  The  best  seed  potatoes  should  weigh  about  as  follows, 
in  ounces : 

Early  Ohio  .  .  .  4  to  8  Rural  New  Yorker  .  8  to  12 

Triumph  .  .  .  3  to  8  Peerless        .     .     .  .  6  to  10 

Early  Rose  .  .  .  6  to  16  Irish  Cobbler    .     .  .  5  to  8 

Burbank  6  to  12  Green  Mountain   .  8  to  12 


i86 


POTATOES 


Cut  i  point  for  each  half  ounce  below  the  lesser  weight  and 
i  point  for  each  half  ounce  above  the  greater  weight. 

3.  Cut  i  to  5  points  according  to  degree  of  poor  form. 

4.  The  eyes  of  the  potato  should  be  shallow  in  all  potatoes 
listed  under  No.  2  except  possibly  in  the  case  of  the  Triumph 
and  the  Irish  Cobbler.     They  generally  have  rather  deep  eyes. 
In  case  of  Triumph  and  Irish  Cobbler  potatoes  cut  .25  of  a  point 
for  every  deep  eye.     In  case  of  all  other  potatoes  listed  under 
No.  2  cut  .5  point  for  every  deep  eye. 

5.  Cut  15  points  for  any  disease  seen  on  a  tuber. 

6.  Cut  15  points  for  any  injury  such  as  a  bad  bruise,  a  severe 
cut  or  hole  punched  by  any  apparatus  used  in  digging,  or  for 
generally  peeled-up  skin  of  tuber. 

7.  Cut  i  to  5  points  according  to  the  amount  of  tuber  that 
would  probably  have  to  be  wasted  in  careful  paring. 


Fig.  103.  —  Green  Mountain  potatoes.     First  prize  winning  sample  on  right;   second, 

on  left. 

8.  Only  in  extreme  cases  is  it  necessary  to  cut  open  pota- 
toes to  determine  prizes.  Allow  full  scores  for  texture  unless 
a  tuber  has  to  be  cut  open.  If  the  potato  is  cut  open  and  a 


HOME  PROJECTS 


187 


hollow  spot  is  found,  cut  10  points.     If  the  potato  is  spongy 
or  if  dark  streaks  run  through  it,  cut  i  to  5  points. 


Fig.  104.       A  boys'  potato-growing  contest. 

The  above  rules  are  for  choice  seed  or  prize  exhibits.  In  case 
of  market  potato  exhibits  one  should  be  a  little  more  lenient  in 
cutting  the  scores. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  varieties  of  potatoes  are  grown  in  your  locality? 

2.  Why  is  a  rich  sandy  or  light  loam  soil  best  for  potatoes? 

3.  What  kind  of  hills  should  be  selected  for  seed? 

HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Select  potatoes  for  seed,  first  by  marking  desirable  hills 
while  the  vines  are  green,  next  by  saving  the  most  desirable  of 
these  marked  hills  at  digging  time. 

2.  Grow  a  plot  of  potatoes,  keeping  an  accurate  record  of  cost 
of  production. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
COTTON 

THE  first  introduction  of  cotton  into  the  American 
colonies  was  probably  made  in  Jamestown,  Virginia.  By 
1780  it  had  become  one  of  the  important  products  of  South 
Carolina.  The  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  by  Eli  Whitney 
in  1793  led  to  an  enormous  increase  in  cotton  production. 

Characteristics  of  the  Plant.  —  As  grown  in  the  United 
States,  the  cotton  plant  is  generally  erect,  somewhat 
bushy,  and  usually  from  two  to  six  feet  tall.  In  its  native 
home,  the  tropics,  it  is  a  perennial,  but  in  this  country  it 
is  an  annual,  being  easily  killed  by  frost.  The  longest 
branches  of  the  plant  are  usually  near  the  base  and  in  most 
varieties  the  length  of  the  limbs  gradually  decreases  toward 
the  top  of  the  main  stem,  giving  to  the  plant  a  more  or  less 
conical  shape.  Productiveness  and  earliness  are  indicated 
largely  by  the  arrangement  of  the  branches.  This  is  also 
an  important  means  of  distinguishing  the  varieties.  There 
is  wide  variation  in  the  size  and  shape  of  leaves  and  this 
also  aids  in  distinguishing  the  varieties. 

The  cotton  plant  has  a  strong  branching  root  that  pene- 
trates deep  into  the  soil.  However,  the  depth  of  penetra- 
tion is  modified  greatly  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  sub- 
soil in  which  the  plant  is  grown. 

If  cross-fertilization  takes  place  it  must  be  during  the 
short  time  that  the  flower  is  open.  With  some  varieties 

the  flowers  open  at  sunrise,  close  late  in  the  day  and  never 

1 88 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF   THE  PLANT 


189 


open  again.  The  petals  of  upland  cotton  are  white  or 
creamy  in  color;  those  of  Sea  Island  cotton  are  bright 
yellow.  During  the  day  they  turn  pink  or  bright  red. 

The  portion  of  the  plant  containing  the  seed  and  lint  is 
called  the  boll,  which  usually  has   four  or  five  divisions. 


Fig.  105.  —  A  typical  cotton  plant  bearing  cotton  ready  to  be  picked. 

The  bolls  vary  greatly  in  size,  depending  upon  the  varieties. 
Usually  they  are  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half 
inches  in  length  and  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches 
in  diameter.  The  big-boll  varieties  average  from  40  to  70 
bolls  per  pound  of  seed  cotton  and  the  small-boll  varieties 
from  80  to  130  per  pound. 


190 


COTTON 


The  Fiber.  —  There  is  but  little  twist  in  immature  fiber, 
and  based  upon  the  amount  of  twisting,  there  are  in  every 
lot  of  cotton  three  kinds  of  fibers,  —  mature,  partly  mature, 
and  immature.  The  strength  of  cloth  and  thread  depends 
largely  upon  the  amount  of  twist  or  state  of  maturity  of 


Fig.  106.  —  A  fine  grade  of  cotton  fiber. 

the  fiber.  The  more  mature  the  fibers  are,  the  more  uni- 
formly and  satisfactorily  will  they  absorb  the  dyes  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  colored  cloth. 

The  following  factors  generally  determine  the  value  of 
cotton  fiber:  (i)  strength,  (2)  length,  (3)  fineness,  (4)  ma- 
turity, (5)  uniformity.  Usually  the  longest  fibers  are  the 
finest  and  these  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  more 
expensive  cotton  fabrics.  The  following  are  about  the 
average  lengths  of  the  fibers  of  the  principal  kinds  of  cotton  : 


American  upland     . 
American  long  staple 
Egyptian    .... 
Sea  Island 


.9  inch 

1.3  inches 

1.4  inches 
1.6  inches 


COTTON   FIBER 


191 


The  Seed.  —  In  each  division  of  the  boll  there  is  a 
lock  of  cotton,  which  contains  six  to  twelve  seeds,  making 
about  25  to  40  seeds  in  one  boll.  The  number  of  seeds 
depends  largely  upon  the  variety,  as  some  varieties  have 
much  larger  seeds  than  others.  The  color  of  the  seeds 
varies  from  white  to  blue,  depending  largely  upon  the 
variety.  In  most  varieties  of  upland  cotton,  the  seed  is 
covered  with  fuzz.  In  some  of  the  long-staple  varieties, 
the  seed  is  practically  free  from  fuzz  and  is  generally  black 


Fig.  107.  —  Cotton  bolls  at  various  stages  of  growth. 

in  color.     The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of  seed  in  most 
states  is  32  pounds. 

Varieties.  —  Cotton  grown  in  the  United  States  may  be 
classified  into  three  groups:  i.  upland  cotton;  2.  Sea 
Island  cotton;  3.  Egyptian  cotton.  The  first  group  con- 
stitutes about  99  per  cent  of  the  cotton  produced  in  the 


IQ2 


COTTON 


COTTON   BREEDING  193 

United  States.  This  group  includes  both  the  long-staple 
and  short-staple  varieties. 

The  second  group,  or  Sea  Island  cotton,  is  grown  only  in 
limited  areas,  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida.  It 
is  considered  a  profitable  crop  only  within  a  distance  of 
about  100  miles  of  the  coast.  The  fiber  is  long,  fine,  and 
silky.  It  is  considered  the  best  fiber  produced  and  sells 
for  the  highest  market  price. 

The  third  group,  Egyptian  cotton,  includes  the  leading 
varieties  now  grown  in  Egypt.  The  fiber  of  this  cotton  is 
somewhat  longer  than  that  of  the  American  upland  long 
staple,  but  is  shorter  and  less  valuable  than  that  of  Sea 
Island.  During  recent  years,  experiments  have  been  con- 
ducted in  practically  all  the  cotton-growing  states  with  this 
variety.  It  is  not  considered  a  profitable  crop  except 
within  very  limited  areas.  In  the  southern  parts  of 
Arizona  and  California  where  the  growing  season  is  long 
and  where  irrigation  is  practiced,  this  cotton  usually 
gives  very  good  yields  and  produces  a  fiber  equal  to  that 
imported. 

Cotton  Breeding.  —  Cotton  breeding  has  received  little 
attention  in  the  cotton  belt.  The  low  yields  of  cotton  in 
the  South  are  not  due  to  poor  soils  and  unfavorable  climatic 
conditions  alone,  but  principally  to  the  planting  of  unim- 
proved seed.  A  large  proportion  of  the  farmers  of  the 
cotton  belt  do  not  practice  seed  selection,  consequently  the 
seed  of  this  crop  is  impure,  mixed,  and  in  other  respects 
inferior.  Pure  varieties,  with  ordinary  usage,  usually  "  run 
out  "  within  a  few  years.  This  is  due  to  a  lack  of  seed 
selection,  to  cross-fertilization,  and  to  the  mixing  of  seed 
at  public  cotton  gins. 

With  proper  selection  and  breeding,  any  of  the  following 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. 13 


I94  COTTON 

characteristics  can  be  greatly  improved :  (i)  yield  of 
lint,  (2)  uniformity  and  length  of  lint,  (3)  size  of  boll, 
(4)  resistance  to  disease,  (5)  earliness,  (6)  resistance  to 
storms. 

Climatic  Conditions.  —  Since  the  native  home  of  cotton 
is  in  the  tropics,  its  production  in  the  United  States  is 
limited  to  the  warmer  sections.  Practically  no  cotton  is 
grown  north  of  the  37th  parallel  of  latitude.  It  is  not  cul- 
tivated to  any  considerable  extent  north  of  the  northern 
boundary  of  North  Carolina  and  Oklahoma.  Warm  days 
and  nights  are  very  necessary  during  the  early  growth  of 
cotton.  Four  or  five  months  of  high  temperature  are  re- 
quired for  the  complete  maturing  of  this  plant.  There 
should  be  no  frost  later  than  April  i  nor  earlier  than 
November  i  for  the  best  production  of  cotton. 

Rainfall  is  a  very  important  factor  in  cotton  production, 
except  where  grown  under  irrigation.  During  the  growing 
period,  the  rainfall  should  be  abundant  enough  to  furnish 
a  good  supply  of  moisture.  During  the  picking  season 
dry  weather  is  desired,  in  order  that  the  highest  quality  of 
lint  may  be  produced,  as  wet  weather  accompanied  by  high 
winds  is  injurious  to  the  quality  of  the  lint. 

Soils.  —  Cotton  is  adapted  to  a  wide  variety  of  soils. 
Sandy  loam  and  clay  loam  usually  give  the  best  results. 
As  a  rule,  light  sandy  soils  produce  the  smallest  yields. 
As  cotton  is  a  more  profitable  crop  on  poorer  land  than  is 
corn,  the  uplands  are  generally  planted  to  cotton  and  the 
more  fertile  lowlands  to  corn.  Heavy  clay  soils  or  soils 
having  a  hard,  compact  subsoil  are  not  suitable  for  cotton 
production.  Commercial  fertilizer  in  some  form  is  usually 
applied  to  cotton  fields.  The  type  of  soil  and  its  fertility 
usually  determine  the  kind  of  fertilizers  used. 


PLANTING   AND    CULTIVATION 


195 


Planting  and  Cultivation.  —  Cotton  requires  a  well-pre- 
pared seed  bed.  Practically  all  of  the  cotton  land  east  of 
the  Mississippi  is  prepared  in  the  spring.  As  a  rule,  land 
intended  for  cotton 
receives  only  one 
plowing  before  the 
seed  is  planted. 
This  practice  usually 
consists  of  forming 
ridges  or  beds  which 
are  about  forty 
inches  apart  and 
three  or  four  inches 
high.  The  greater 
part  of  this  plowing 
is  done  in  February 
and  March,  the  time 
depending  upon  the 
climate  and  soil  con- 
ditions. On  heavy 
clay  land  it  is  a 
common  practice  to  plow  in  the  fall  in  order  that  the  soil 
may  be  pulverized  by  winter  freezing. 

Practically  all  cotton  seed  is  planted  with  the  single  row 
drill,  usually  from  one  to  two  and  a  half  inches  deep. 
The  amount  of  seed  planted  per  acre  depends  largely 
upon  the  variety  and  varies  from  a  half  to  one  and  a  half 
bushels.  Cultivation  should  begin  just  as  soon  as  the 
plants  can  be  seen  in  the  row.  The  cheapest  and  best  in- 
strument with  which  to  give  the  first  cultivation  is  the 
ordinary  spike-tooth  harrow  or  weeder.  The  first  two  cul- 
tivations can  be  fairly  deep:  All  subsequent  cultivations 


Fig.  109.  —  Specimens  of  cotton  bolls. 


196  COTTON 

should  be  shallow.  Thinning  the  cotton  usually  begins 
when  it  is  about  three  or  four  inches  high.  The  degree  of 
thinning  depends  upon  the  variety,  soil,  and  climatic  con- 
ditions. On  the  poorer  uplands,  it  is  a  common  practice 
to  leave  ten  to  fourteen  inches  between  the  plants  in  the 
drill.  On  the  low,  fertile  bottom  soils,  wider  spacing  is 
necessary  and  usually  on  such  soils  cotton  is  thinned  to 
allow  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  between  plants.  Shallow 
cultivation  is  necessary,  for  the  cotton  plant  puts  out 
numerous  feeding  roots  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Such  cultivation  should  be  continued  until  the  plant  is 
fairly  well  fruited.  Usually  the  latter  part  of  July  or  the 
first  of  August  is  the  time  for  cultivation  to  cease.  This, 
however,  depends  upon  seasonal  conditions. 

There  is  nothing  else  that  will  increase  the  yield  of  cotton 
so  easily  and  so  cheaply  as  the  growing  of  leguminous  crops 
in  a  rotation.  The  following  rotation  is  considered  the 
best  for  the  cotton  belt,  where  rainfall  will  permit  of  the 
growing  of  these  crops : 

FIRST  YEAR.  —  Corn,  with  cowpeas  sown  broadcast  between 

rows. 
SECOND   YEAR. — Oats,  sown   on   the   corn   land,  which  was 

plowed  in  the  fall.  Cowpeas  after  the  oat  crop  is  harvested. 
THIRD  YEAR.  —  Cotton. 

(This  rotation  cannot  be  practiced  in  the  dry-farming  section 
of  the  Southwest.) 

Harvesting.  —  Picking  is  the  most  expensive  operation 
connected  with  cotton  production.  The  picking  season 
usually  opens  the  latter  part  of  August  or  the  first  of  Sep- 
tember and  is  practically  over  by  the  middle  of  December. 

A  day's  work  for  an  average  picker  is  about  175  pounds 
of  seed  cotton.  However,  skillful  pickers  are  able  to  obtain 


HARVESTING 


197 


much  larger  quantities.  An  average  yield  is  about  200 
pounds  of  lint  per  acre.  After  picking,  the  most  common 
practice  is  to  haul  the  seed  cotton  to  a  public  gin  where  the 
lint  is  separated  from  the  seed.  This  separation  is  made 
by  means  of  circular  saws  revolving  at  a  very  high  speed. 
A  large  brush  removes  the  lint  from  the  saws  and  passes  it 


©  Keystone  View  Co. 
Fig.  no.  —  Loads  of  cotton  ready  for  the  cotton  gin. 

to  a  condenser  from  which  it  enters  the  press  where  it  is 
compacted  into  bales.  The  size  of  bales  varies  somewhat 
but  usually  they  are  27  by  54  inches  and  contain  about 
500  pounds  of  lint  cotton.  The  bales  are  usually  entirely 
covered  with  a  coarse  cloth,  or  "  bagging/'  which  is  bound 
by  six  steel  bands  extending  around  the  bale.  For  shipping 
purposes,  these  bales  are  pressed  to  a  still  smaller  size  in 
order  to  reduce  the  cost  of  shipping. 


198  COTTON 

Marketing. -- The  quality  and  grade  of  cotton  largely 
determine  the  price.  The  grade  depends  principally  upon 
the  color  of  fiber,  the  amount  of  trash,  and  the  amount  of 
immature  fiber.  The  grade  is  not  usually  influenced  by  the 
length  of  fiber,  but  the  length  has  an  important  influence  in 
determining  the  price. 

Principal  Uses.  —  Cotton  is  grown  mostly  for  its  fiber 
which  is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  many  kinds 
ot»cotton  goods.  A  number  of  products  are  made  from  the 
seed.  Large  quantities  of  oil  are  extracted  from  the  seed 
and  the  residue  is  used  for  cattle  feed  and  as  a  fertilizer. 
Nitrogen  is  the  chief  fertilizer  constituent  in  cotton  seed. 
Phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  also  present  in  small 
amounts. 

A  ton  of  cotton  seed  usually  produces  750  to  900  pounds 
of  hulls,  depending  upon  the  kind  of  machinery  employed 
in  the  process.  The  hulls  are  used  extensively  as  cattle 
feed. 

Insect  Enemies.  —  Several  hundred  species  of  insects  are 
known  to  feed  upon  the  cotton  plant.  Some  of  the  more 
destructive  are  the  boll  weevil,  bollworm,  cotton  caterpillar, 
and  cutworm. 

The  boll  weevil  has  spread  over  practically  two  thirds 
of  the  cotton  belt  and  has  done  more  damage  than  all  the 
other  insects  combined.  The  boll  weevil  in  the  adult  stage 
passes  the  winter  in  grass  or  any  kind  of  crop  residue  left 
on  the  field.  In  spring  the  insects  emerge  and  lay  their 
eggs  upon  the  young  buds  and  later  in  the  season  upon 
the  bolls  of  the  cotton  plant,  into  which  the  larvae  bore 
after  hatching.  As  a  rule  all  buds  that  are  attacked 
drop  off.  However,  the  larger  bolls  may  be  attacked  and 
still  produce  one  or  more  locks  of  cotton.  There  are  a 


DISEASES  199 

number  of  generations  in  one  season  and  the  injury  is  gen- 
erally greatest  the  latter  part  of  the  season.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  progeny  of  a  single  pair  in  one  season  may 
amount  to  134,000,000  individuals. 

Various  methods  have  been  employed  in  combating  this 
pest.  Reducing  the  number  of  insects  in  the  fall  by  early 
destruction  of  the  plants  has  proved  fairly  effective.  The 
growing  of  early  maturing  varieties,  early  planting,  use  of 
fertilizers,  proper  spacing  of  plants,  and  thorough  cultiva- 
tion are  other  means  used  in  controlling  this  insect. 

Winds  and  flooded  streams  are  important  means  of  trans- 
porting boll  weevils  from  infected  sections  to  uninfected 


Fig.  in.  —  Early  effect  of  anthracnose  on  young  cotton  plants. 

areas.  The  pest  is  also  disseminated  by  shipping  seed  into 
a  territory  from  an  infested  section. 

The  cotton  bollworm  and  caterpillar  are  difficult  to  keep 
under  control  in  some  sections.  Poisoning  seems  to  give 
fairly  good  results.  Fall  plowing  is  generally  recommended. 

Diseases.  —  In  some  sections,  particularly  in  the  humid 
regions,  the  cotton  plant  is  subject  to  a  number  of  diseases, 


200  COTTON 

some  of  which  do  considerable  damage.  The  following  are 
the  most  important :  cotton  wilt,  root  knot,  anthracnose 
or  boll  knot,  root  rot,  and  rust. 

Diseases  of  cotton  are  controlled  to  a  large  extent  by 
breeding  of  resistant  varieties,  rotation  of  crops,  selection 
of  clean,  early  varieties  of  seed,  and  proper  cultivation. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Outline  a  four-year  rotation  suitable  for  a  cotton  farm. 

2.  Which  cotton  fields  are  more  likely  to  be  seriously  affected 
by  the  boll  weevil,  those  on  which  cotton  is  grown  in  rotation 
once  in  three  years,  or  those  growing  cotton  every  year  ?    Why  ? 

HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  By  actual  trial  determine  the  cost  of  producing  and  har- 
vesting an  acre  of  cotton. 

2.  Compare  the  yield  of  upland  and  Sea  Island  cotton  by 
growing  and  harvesting  equal  areas  of  each,  side  by  side,  under 
the  same  conditions,  keeping  accurate  records  of  all  processes. 


PART    II.     HORTICULTURE 

CHAPTER  I 
PROPAGATION   BY   SEEDS  AND   SPORES 

PROPAGATION  by  seeds  is  the  most  general  method  of 
plant  production.  Most  of  the  annuals,  many  of  the 
flowering  perennials  and  forest  trees,  and  some  of  the 
shrubs  are  propagated  by  seeds.  Even  our  fruit  trees  come 
from  seeds  planted  in  the  nursery,  which  are  later  grafted 
or  budded  before  transplanting  to  the  orchard. 

Seeds.  —  A  seed  is  a  small  living  plant  in  a  dormant 
state,  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  plant  food  to  maintain 
it  until  it  can  manufacture  its  own.  Each  kind  of  seed 
differs  from  that  of  every  other  kind,  but  it  is  often  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  between  some  of  these  kinds.  Cab- 
bage and  cauliflower  seed,  for  example,  are  similar  in  most 
characteristics.  As  different  plants  may  be  identified 
by  the  variations  in  their  foliage,  flowers,  stems,  and  fruit, 
so  seeds  may  be  identified  by  the  variations  in  their  form, 
size,  color,  taste,  smell,  and  texture. 

Testing  Purity  of  Seeds.  --The  value  of  seeds  depends 
first,  upon  their  purity.  Large  seeds  like  corn  and  beans 
are  generally  pure,  that  is,  they  are  not  mixed  or  adulter- 
ated. Small  seeds,  such  as  those  of  our  grasses  and  clovers, 
are  likely  to  be  mixed  with  weed  seeds,  dirt,  chaff,  and 
other  useless  and  often  harmful  foreign  matter.  White 
clover,  winter  vetch,  alsike  clover,  orchard  grass,  Cana- 
dian blue  grass,  and  red  clover  are  especially  liable  to 


202 


PROPAGATION   BY   SEEDS   AXD    SPORES 


contain  foreign  seeds.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  that  only 
pure  seed  be  purchased.  Many  states  have  passed  laws 
compelling  their  seedsmen  to  offer  for  sale  only  those  seeds 
that  contain  not  more  than  a  certain  small  percentage  of 
impurities  unless  the  percentage  of  impurity  is  indicated 
on  the  label. 

Germination  Tests.  —  After  purity,  the  next  most  im- 
portant quality  is  vitality.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  for 
the  cultivator  to  know  before  planting  whether  his  seeds 

will  grow  or  not.  We  cannot  tell 
by  the  exterior  appearance  of 
seed  whether  it  is  of  high  or  low 
vitality. 

The  vitality  of  seeds  depends 
largely  upon  their  age.  Some 
seeds,  such  as  peas,  will  not  ger- 
minate well  after  they  are  two 
years  old,  while  other  seeds  main- 
tain their  vitality  for  several  years. 
Chickweed  seeds  have  been  kept 
for  twenty-five  years  and  ger- 
minated at  the  end  of  that  time.  The  length  of  time  that 
seeds  maintain  their  germinative  power  is  called  the  lon- 
gevity of  seeds. 

Seeds  also  fail  to  germinate  when  they  have  become  too 
dry  or  when  they  have  been  subjected  to  freezing,  espe- 
cially before  becoming  sufficiently  mature  or  dry.  Seeds 
may  fail  to  germinate  also  when  they  have  been  stored  while 
damp  or  when  they  have  failed  to  mature  properly.  One 
of  the  most  frequent  reasons,  however,  why  seeds  fail  to 
germinate  properly  is  that  of  unfavorable  external  condi- 
tions at  planting  time. 


Fig.  112.  —  Seed  testers. 


GERMINATION 


203 


LONGEVITY  OF  SEEDS 
(From  Vilmorin's  Tables) 


SEEDS 

|   AVERAGE 
LONGEVITY 
IN  YEARS 

EXTREME 
LONGEVITY 
IN  YEARS 

SEEDS 

AVERAGE 
LONGEVITY 
IN  YEARS 

EXTREME 
LONGEVITY 
IN  YEARS 

Barley     .     .     . 

3 



1  Orchard  grass  . 

2 



Bean  .... 

3 

8 

Parsnip  .     .     . 

2 

4 

Beet  .... 

6                 10 

Pea    .... 

3 

8 

Cabbage      .     . 

5                 I0 

Pumpkin     .     . 

4  or  5 

9 

Carrot     .     .     . 

4  or  5             10 

Purslane     .     . 

7 

10 

Catnip    .     .     . 

5 

6 

Radish   .     .     . 

5 

10 

Cauliflower 

5                 10 

Rye  .... 

2 

— 

Clover     . 

3 

Soy  bean     . 

2 

6 

Cucumber  . 

10                10 

\  Strawberry 

3 

6 

Dandelion   . 

2 

5 

Tomato  .     .     . 

4 

9 

Kohl-rabi    . 

5 

10 

!  Turnip   .     .     . 

5 

10 

Maize      .     .     . 

2 

4 

',  Watermelon    . 

6 

10 

Oats  .... 

3 

Wheat    .     .     . 

2 

7 

Onion 

2                   7 

External  Requirements  for  Germination. — A  seed,  being 
a  live  plant  in  a  dormant  state,  requires  certain  external 
conditions  to  resume  its  active  growth.  So  long  as  any 
one  of  these  conditions  is  wanting,  the  seed  remains  dor- 
mant and  finally  dies.  The  conditions  necessary  for 
germination  are  abundant  moisture,  warmth,  and  the 
presence  of  oxygen. 

Moisture.  —  So  long  as  seeds  are  kept  dry,  no  matter 
how  warm  the  surroundings  may  be,  they  will  not  ger- 
minate. The  degree  of  moisture  generally  needed  to  start 
germination  is  complete  saturation.  To  seeds  in  the  soil,  the 
moisture  is  furnished  by  the  capillary  action  of  soil  water, 
and  the  more  quickly  this  saturation  takes  place,  other 
conditions  being  favorable,  the  sooner  the  seeds  germinate. 


204 


PROPAGATION   BY   SEEDS   AND    SPORES 


This  has  led  to  the  practice  of  soaking  seeds  before  sow- 
ing, especially  hard-coated  ones  like  asparagus  or  canna 
seed,  to  hasten  germination.  Beans  and  corn  are  some- 
times soaked  overnight  before  planting. 

Temperature.  —  Few  seeds  will  germinate  in  a  tempera- 
ture below  freezing.  It  is  because  of  low  temperature  that 
weed  seeds  fail  to  grow  during  the  winter,  and  remain  dor- 
mant until  the  soil  becomes  warmed  by  the  sun  in  the 

spring.  Corn  fails  to 
germinate  if  planted  too 
early  in  the  spring  while 
the  soil  is  still  cold. 
The  required  temper- 
ature, however,  varies 
with  different  seeds.  The 
seeds  of  peas,  radishes, 
and  lettuce  germinate 
at  a  lower  temperature 
than  corn  and  many 
other  garden  seeds.  For 

most  seeds,  a  tempera- 
Fig.  113.  — Sowing  seeds.     An  even  depth  of        ,  r         o  f  o    F     - 
seeds   in  fine,  moist   soil   promotes  good        LUre    OI    y^      LO  QO      r  .    IS 
germination.                                                             u                  ~ 

best.      Great    extremes 

between  the  temperature  of  the  day  and  that  of  the  night 
retard  germination.  With  small  delicate  seeds  extremes 
of  temperature  are  exceedingly  injurious. 

Oxygen.  —  Free  oxygen  is  essential  for  germination. 
This  element  is  required  in  the  process  by  which  the  stored- 
up  food  in  the  seed  is  made  available  for  the  young  plant. 
Seeds,  if  soaked  in  a  jar  of  water,  will  enlarge  and  appar- 
ently start  to  germinate,  but  if  kept  submerged  and  the 
surface  of  the  water  oiled  to  prevent  oxygen  from  reaching 


GERMINATION 


205 


the  seeds,  they  will  die  from  lack  of  oxygen.  Seeds  planted 
in  wet  and  poorly  drained  soil  often  fail  to  germinate 
because  the  excessive  quantity  of  water  excludes  the  neces- 
sary oxygen. 

Time  Required  for  Germination.  —  The  time  required 
for  germination  varies  greatly  with  the  different  kinds  of 
seeds  as  well  as  with  the  conditions  of  temperature,  moisture, 
and  oxygen.  Lettuce  and  radish  seeds  will  germinate 
under  ideal  conditions  in  a  few  days,  while  celery  seed 
requires  a  much  longer  period.  Some  kinds  of  tree  seeds 
do  not  germinate  for  two  or  more  years  after  they  are 
placed  in  the  ground.  Therefore,  in  seed  sowing,  it  is 
well  to  know  the  time  required  for  germination  that  pro- 
vision may  be  made  for  such  a  period. 

AVERAGE   TIME   REQUIRED   FOR   COMMON   SEEDS   TO 
GERMINATE 


SEED 

DAYS 

SEED 

DAYS 

Bean      

"?—  10 

Lettuce     

6-8 

Beet      

7—10 

Onion  

7—10 

Cabbage     

5—10 

Parsnip     

IO-2O 

Carrot                  .... 

1  2-1  8 

Pea 

6—  10 

Cauliflower          .... 

<;—  10 

Penner 

o—  14 

Celery                       .     .     . 

10—  20 

Radish 

1-6 

Corn      .          

S-8 

Salsify       ...          . 

7—12 

Cucumber  

6—  10 

Tomato     

6—12 

Endive  

5—10 

Turnip      

4-8 

Seed  Sowing.  —  Knowing  the  essentials  for  germina- 
tion, one  must  endeavor  to  provide  ideal  conditions. 
Much  of  the  vitality  and  vigor  of  seedlings  is  often  lost 
by  sowing  seeds  whose  strength  is  spent  in  the  effort  to 


206          PROPAGATION  BY   SEEDS  AND   SPORES 

develop  under  unfavorable  conditions.  The  more  quickly 
the  seeds  germinate  after  being  sown,  the  more  vigorous  the 
plants  will  be  and  the  less  trouble  the  cultivator  will  en- 
counter from  weeds.  Ideal  moisture  conditions  are  sup- 
plied by  planting  in  a  well-drained  soil  of  good  texture  and 
containing  enough  humus  to  maintain  the  moisture.  In 
addition  the  soil  should  be  well  prepared  and  well  compacted 
about  the  seeds. 

In  sowing  seeds  out  of  doors,  the  temperature  is  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  season  and  by  the  depth  of  planting. 
As  a  rule,  seed  should  be  sown  only  as  deep  as  moisture 
conditions  require,  because  usually  the  soil  at  the  surface 
is  warmer  than  that  lower  down.  Depth  of  sowing  is 
also  governed  by  the  size  of  the  seed  as  well  as  by  its  vitality. 
Large,  vigorous  seeds  can  be  sown  deeper  than  small  weak 
seeds.  In  indoor  sowing,  very  small  seeds  like  begonia  or 
cineraria  are  simply  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

A  sufficient  supply  of  oxygen  is  assured  if  the  seed  is 
not  planted  too  deep  and  if  the  soil  does  not  become  too 
wet  or  puddled.  To  insure  an  even  depth  of  planting,  the 
soil  should  be  finely  pulverized.  Small  weed  seeds  when 
plowed  under  in  the  spring  probably  remain  dormant 
because  of  the  lack  of  oxygen. 

Seed  Storage.  —  As  seeds  are  living  plants  in  a  dormant 
state,  it  is  very  essential  to  provide  favorable  external 
conditions  for  their  storage.  All  thin-coated  seeds  should 
be  stored  in  a  dry  place  in  which  the  temperature  is 
above  freezing ;  while  hard-shelled  seeds  require  moisture 
and  often  freezing  for  ideal  storage  conditions.  If  the 
atmosphere  in  a  storage  room  for  thin-coated  vegetable 
and  flower  seeds  is  damp,  it  should  be  dried  by  artificial 
means.  Nearly  all  nuts  and  many  of  our  common  fruits 


PROPAGATION   BY   SPORES  207 

having  hard  seed  coats  are  stored  by  stratifying  them  in 
moist  sand  and  burying  out  of  doors.  This  is  called  seed 
stratification. 

Seed  Stratification. — To  stratify  seeds,  a  well-drained 
spot  is  first  selected.  Then  the  seeds  are  buried  in  layers 
alternating  with  sand  at  such  a  depth  that  they  will  freeze, 
but  not  be  subject  to  alternating  freezing  and  thawing. 
Small  seeds  may  be  placed  in  a  shallow  box  with  very  fine 
sand  and  the  box  buried  out  of  doors.  Many  seeds  do 
not  germinate  the  first  year  and  by  stratifying  them,  the 
space  that  they  would  otherwise  occupy  in  the  field  is 
saved.  It  is  only  a  waste  of  ground  to  sow  such  seeds  in 
the  soil  the  first  year.  Fall  sowing  of  apples  and  peaches 
amounts  to  the  same  thing  as  stratification.  It  is  always 
advisable  to  mulch  with  straw  seeds  sown  at  this  time. 
Seeds  should  be  stratified  as  soon  as  possible  after  they 
have  matured. 

Propagation  by  Spores.  —  Many  of  the  non-flowering 
plants,  as  ferns  and  mushrooms,  do  not  produce  seeds. 
Instead,  small  spores  are  formed  on  the  under  surfaces 
of  the  leaves.  These  spores  differ  from  seeds  in  that  they 
do  not  contain  an  embryo  or  young  plant,  but  are  simply 
one  or  few-celled  structures.  In  the  propagation  of  plants 
from  spores,  the  same  general  conditions  are  necessary 
as  for  seeds,  but  moisture  and  drainage  are  of  even  more 
importance.  Spores  are  extremely  small  and  delicate, 
hence  the  depth  of  sowing  is  very  important.  They  are 
usually  sown  in  pots.  The  pot  is  filled  about  half  full 
with  broken  pots  or  bricks  and  the  top  soil  prepared  ex- 
tremely fine.  Over  this  the  spores  are  sprinkled.  The 
pot  should  be  set  in  a  saucer  of  water  and  covered  with  a 
pane  of  glass  to  maintain  moisture.  It  should  then  be 


PROPAli  \110N    BY    SEEDS   AND   SPOR 

placed  in  a  warm  room  where  an  even  temperature  can  be 
maintained.  The  spores  will  germinate  in  three  to  six 
weeks. 

EXERCISK> 

1 .  What  is  plant  propagation  ? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  of  testing  seeds  before  planting  ? 

3.  Has  your  state  any  law  regarding  the  amount  of  wood 
seeds  that  a  given  sample  of  seed  may  contain  ?     If  so,  how 
much  does  the  law  allow? 

4.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  depth  of  planting  to  the  oxygen 
supply? 

5.  Explain  in  detail  the  method  of  stratifying  seeds. 

6.  How  does  a  spore  differ  from  a  seed  ? 

7.  If  red  clover  seed  containing  305,000  seeds  per  pound  is 
composed  of  3  per  cent  weed  seeds  by  count,  how  many  weed 
seeds  are  sown  in  a  square  foot  when  the  clover  is  sown  at  the 
rate  of  10  pounds  per  acre? 

8.  If  a  seed  sample  contains  95  per  cent  of  pure  seed,  of  which 
90  per  cent  germinates,  what  per  cent  of  the  entire  sampU 
viable? 

9.  Examine    samples    of    radish,  spinach,  lettuce,  celery, 
parsnip,  carrot,  cucumber,  melon,  and  other  important  \\ 
table  seeds  at  hand.     Describe  the  form,  color,  size,  texture, 
taste,  and  smell  of  each. 

(To  the  teacher:  Make  mixtures  of  these  seeds  .and  have 
students  separate  and  identify  each  kind.) 

10.  Make  a  germination  test  of  100  seeds  each  of  peas,  beans, 
cucumbers,  cabbages,  radishes,  and  corn.  To  make  the  germi- 
nation test,  take  two  pieces  of  blotting  paper  and  place  them  in 
a  plate.  The  blotting  papers  should  be  kept  soaked  and  the 
seeds  placed  between  the  blotting  papers.  The  plate  should  be 
kept  in  a  warm  place  and  at  an  even  temperature,  70°  F.  or  o\ 

\   :e  the  number  of  each  kind  germinating  each  day,  and 


IIOMI    I'MojH  r,  109 

finally  estimate  the  percentage  of  germination,  Tabulate  your 
results  in  your  notebook,  It  should  be  »«  DM  nix  red  that  the 
so-called  seed  of  the  beet  i§  really  a  seed  ball.  >>"  i,  usually 
eontain§  more  than  one  seed,  Therefore,  it  is  impossible  to 

j/c-l   an  :i«ur:ilr   Irnl   .,1   UK    w,  •  iilM   |,rr|   arr«|a 

<  >    Bring  to  school  a  sample  of  each  kind  of  soil  on  your 
farm,    Can  you  teU  by  the  appearance  of  a  soil  whether  l»  < 
a  cold  sod  or  a  warm  soil?    Is  it  advisable  to  plant  early  seeds 
such  as  radishes  and  lettuce,  on  a  cold  soil?   Are  some  of 
your  soils  better  suited  to  late  than  early  crops?    Test  <>« 
relative  moisture  content  of  these  samples.    Can  you  judge 
f  <  m  your  sample  whether  or  not  it  would  provide  a  suffid<  ni 
supply  of  oxygen  to  germinating  seeds?    How  could  you  in  [( 
thl*  character? 

HOME  PSOJECT8 

s,  Make  purity  tests  of  any  three  of  the  following  kinds 
of  seeds  at  your  farm;  Kentucky  blue  grass,  alsike  clover, 
winter  vetch,  white  clover,  alfalfa,  and  orchard  grass,  Tabulate 
the  results,  (When  results  are  to  be  tabulated,  the  teacher 
should  suggest  the  appropriate  form  to  be  used,) 

i.  Take  a  sample  of  too  seeds  of  any  three  of  the  following 
kinds  of  seeds;  onion,  corn,  celery,  tobacco,  tomato,  clo 
parsnip,  orchard  grass,  and  wheat    Make  a  germination  test 

erf  criMh   SUM!    l:il;«jl:it*- 


CHAPTER   II 


PROPAGATION    BY   SEPARATION,    DIVISION,   AND 
LAYERAGE 

Propagation  by  Separation.  —  Many  plants  accustomed 
to  long  periods  of  inactivity  form  specialized  buds  that 
are  provided  with  an  abundant  food  supply,  which  enables 
them  to  withstand  adverse  conditions  and  later  to  develop 
into  plants.  These  buds  break  away  from  the  parent 
plant  and  after  being  detached  are  able  to  live  a  separate 
existence.  These  specialized  buds  are 
classified  as  bulbs,  bulbels,  bulblets, 
corms,  and  cormels.  Propagation  by 
means  of  these  buds  is  called  separation. 
A  Bulb  is  a  short  stem  containing  a 
terminal  bud  surrounded  by  thickened 
leaves  called  bulb  scales.  These  thick- 
ened leaves  are  stored  with  plant  food 
which  maintains  the  plant  until  it  is 
able  to  manufacture  and  digest  its  own 
food.  There  are  two  special  classes  of 
bulbs :  (i)  the  scaly  bulbs,  as  those  of 
the  Easter  lily  (Fig.  114),  made  up  of  bulb  scales  that  are 
narrow,  thick,  and  loose,  and  (2)  the  laminate  bulbs  com- 
posed of  close-fitting  thin  layers,  as  in  the  onion. 

Bulbs  are  generally  formed  just  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  ground.     Sometimes  but  one  large  bulb  is  produced 

210 


lb,    showing  bulb 


scales. 


CORMS  AND   CORMELS 


211 


by  each  plant,  but  frequently  bulbs  divide  themselves  into 
two  or  more  equal  portions,  each  of  which  may  separate 
and  become  a  complete  bulb.  This  method,  however, 
is  too  slow  if  one  desires  to  multiply  them  very  rapidly. 

Bulbels.  —  Small  bulbs  generally  develop  around  the  large 
" mother''  bulb.  These  are  called  bulbels  and  may  be 
separated  and  planted  by  them- 
selves. Some  plants  do  not  pro- 
duce bulbels  freely,  but  they  can 
be  induced  to  do  so  by  wounding 
or  mutilating  the  "  mother  " 
bulb.  This  method  of  propaga- 
tion is  resorted  to  in  propagat- 
ing a  large  stock  of  a  new  variety. 
Bulbels  may  be  treated  as  ma- 
tured bulbs  although  they  will 
seldom  flower  the  first  year.  In 
fact,  most  bulbels  require  two  or 
three  seasons  to  reach  sufficient 
size  to  form  large  flowers.  This 
is  the  method  by  which  hyacinths 
are  propagated  in  Holland. 

A  Bulblet  is  a  small  bulb  borne  entirely  above  ground 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  as  in  the  tiger  lily,  or  at  the  top 
of  a  stem  as  in  the  "  top  "  onion. 

Conns  and  Cormels.  —  Conns  are  produced  quite  simi- 
larly to  bulbs  but  differ  from  them  in  being  solid  through- 
out. The  food  here  is  deposited  in  the  thickened  stem. 
Small  corms  or  cormels  are  developed  similarly  to  bulbels 
and  the  corm  may  also  be  mutilated  in  the  same  manner 
as  bulbs  to  induce  the  formation  of  cormels.  The  crocus, 
gladiolus,  and  caladium  are  corm-producing  plants. 


Fig.  115.  —  Corm  of  gladiolus  with 
cormels  attached. 


212 


PROPAGATION  BY  SEPARATION 


Propagation  by  Division.  —  Many  plants  are  propa- 
gated by  cutting  or  breaking  the  parent  plant  into  several 
pieces.  This  method  of  propagation  is  known  as  division. 
Propagation  by  division  is  practiced  principally  with  tu- 
bers, rootstocks,  crowns,  stolons,  and  suckers. 

A  Tuber  is  a  thickened  portion  of  a  stem  that  grows 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  Irish  potato  and  the 

dahlia  are  familiar  examples. 
These  plants  are  multiplied  by 
either  planting  the  entire  tuber 
or  dividing  it  into  portions  each 
of  which  must  contain  a  bud 
or  "  eye." 

A  Rootstock   is  .a  prostrate, 
much    thickened    stem     which 
pushes  out  lateral  roots  in  all 
directions  and  upon  which  buds 
are  formed.     These  buds  when 
detached     develop     into     new 
plants.     The  rootstock  may  be 
separated  into  as  many  parts 
as    there    are    buds    and    each 
part  treated  as  a  separate  plant. 
Crowns.  —  With  some  plants  the  rootstock  during  the  sum- 
mer develops  on  each  rooted  branch  a  strong  terminal  bud. 
Each  branch  thus  formed  containing  roots  and  a  terminal 
bud  is  called  a  crown.     This  may  be  dug  in  the  fall  when 
the  plant  is  dormant  and  divided  into  as  many  parts  as 
there  are  crowns  and  each  treated  as  an  independent  plant. 
Stolons  are  trailing  branches  often  known  as  runners. 
Roots  start  at  the  nodes  of  the  runner  and  thus  new  plants 
are  produced.     After  the  young  plants  are  well  rooted 


Fig.  1 16.  —  A  new  corm  of  caladium, 
with  cormels,  and  the  old  corm  at 
the  base. 


PROPAGATION   BY  LAYERAGE 


213 


they  may  be  separated  from  the  parent  by  cutting  the 
stolons.  Strawberries  and  cranberries  reproduce  by  means 
of  stolons. 

Suckers  are  young  plants  that  are  produced  from  under- 
ground stems  or  roots.     This  method  of  propagation  is 


Fig.  117.  —  Reproduction  of  strawberry  plants  by  stolons. 

used  in  producing  new  plants  of  the  red  raspberry  and 
blackberry.  The  growth  of  suckers  may  be  induced  by 
heavy  fertilization  and  severe  pruning. 

Although  this  method  of  propagation  is  not  generally 
practiced  on  a  commercial  scale  with  many  plants,  it  is  a 
very  convenient  one  for  private  use  in  multiplying  many 
of  the  flowering  perennials  and  herbs,  as  well  as  spireas, 
deutzias,  roses,  and  similar-growing  shrubs. 

Propagation  by  Layerage.  —  Plants  that  do  not  readily  take 
root  from  cuttings  may  often  be  conveniently  propagated 
by  layerage.  By  this  method  a  branch  is  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  earth  in  such  a  manner  as  to  induce  it  to  throw 
out  roots  and  stems,  thus  forming  a  separate  plant.  Layer- 
ing is  especially  convenient  for  reproducing  plants  with 
more  or  less  decumbent  branches,  and  as  the  parent  plant 
supplies  the  food  and  water  until  the  layer  is  established, 
it  is  a  simple  and  easy  method  of  propagation.  Plants 
that  do  not  readily  send  out  roots  can  often  be  induced  to 


214 


PROPAGATION  BY  SEPARATION 


do  so  by  bending,  twisting,  notching,  or  otherwise  mutilat- 
ing that  portion  of  the  stem  from  which  the  roots  are  to  be 
formed.  In  commercial  practice,  the  grape,  quince,  cur- 
rant, gooseberry,  and  some  of  our  ornamental  plants  are 
multiplied  in  this  manner.  There  are  several  modes  of 
layering  plants,  which  differ  only  in  the  way  the  operation 
is  performed. 

(i)    Simple  Layering  consists  in  bending  down  a  stem, 
covering  with  soil  the  portion  at  which  the  roots  are  desired 


Fig.  118.  —  Serpentine  layering. 

and  leaving  the  terminal  portion  uncovered.  The  buried 
portion  should  contain  a  node  as  this  is  the  point  where 
roots  most  readily  form. 

(2)  Tip  Layering  consists  of  bending  the  branch  or  cane 
down  to  the  ground  and  covering  the  tip  with  soil.  The 
cane  or  branch  will  throw  out  roots  and  develop  a  new 
plant  at  the  covered  tip.  The  black  raspberry  propagates 
naturally  in  this  manner. 


PROPAGATION  BY  LAYERAGE  215 

(3)  Serpentine    or   Multiple    Layering.  —  When   many 
plants  are  desired  from  a  single  stem,  it  is  pinned  to  the 
ground  and  covered  at  frequent  intervals,  thus  inducing 
the  plant  to  form  roots  at  more  than  one  point.     After 
the  roots  have  formed,  the  vine  may  be  cut  between  these 
points,    leaving   a   number   of   independent   plants.     The 
grape  and  many  ornamental  vines  are  readily  propagated 
by  this  method. 

(4)  Mound  Layering  is  another  method  of   obtaining 
many  plants  from  a  single  individual.     This  is  performed 
by  cutting  back  the  old  plant  to  the  ground  early  in  the 
spring  to  stimulate  the  formation  of  many  new  shoots. 
The  succeeding  fall  or  spring  the  soil  is  ridged  up  about 
the  plants  high  enough  to  cover  the  lower  nodes  of  the 
new  branches.     From  these  nodes  roots  are  formed  which 
are  sufficiently  strong  to  be  separated  from  the  parent 
plant   the   following  fall.      The  gooseberry,  quince,  and 
many  of   the  ornamental  shrubs  may  be  propagated  in 
this  manner. 

(5)  Air  Layering.  —  Sometimes  it  is  impossible  to  bring 
a  branch  in  contact  with  the  ground.     In  such  a  case,  soil 
or  moss  is  placed  around  the  branch  and  held  in  position 
by  some  artificial  means.     If  this  covering  is  kept  moist, 
roots  will  develop  and  a  new  plant  will  form.     The  rubber 
plant  so  common  in  our  homes  may  be  multiplied  in  this 
manner. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  propagation  by  separation? 

2.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  corm  and  a  bulb?     Are 
they  propagated  in  the  same  manner? 

3.  What  is  a  rootstock?     How  can  you  tell  an  underground 


PROPAGATION    u\    SEPARATUM 

up  the  im<lnxriviim<l  part 

"i  «|uark  grass.     N"i<-  ii 

i     hia\\    U'lit  <!.>-•  an.t  l.Mi-ii  ihlm.tl  sections  »t  an  onion 
1 1. nl!  .1  laU-l  properly. 

i  n. h     .t  v  i>iiti  •  I'l.tnl         Il>'\\    arc    i  lu'St*   [>l.lll!  •- 

|.i..|..t;^.Lh  <1 .'  X.'hic  ilu    iiimui    \\hnli   juincd  ilui  \»>un^  pl.mt 
I.,  ihc  nl.l  pi. ml  .in. I  iln  ilu-  ruiiiu-r  whii'h    the  voting  plai/ 

;i  1     tlu-iv  a  l.n«l  .it   tlic  cii.l  ol    tlu-  \nuni^  rum. 

I  -   il   .1   l.-.il  Of  Inn!    I- .. 

\\  hai  .tic    the    m.M    pf»ti-nt    ones   in   ra 

plants  an«l  1 1- 

IloMI-     NtOJBCI 

Select  two  km.t    of  1  two  U 

\  in.-s,  an«l  thirc  :-!tiai  n\a\    I -c  i ca.hU   prupa^atc.i 

bylayerage.  i\<-  new  plant    oi  cu  : 

incth..(|-  ,,i    prop.t-.r  tip   la\ « 

tine  la\.  t  in.«un,l  la\*  -oparate  an»i  plant  in  -int- 

.tl'le    pla.  (  S 


CHAPTER   HI 
PROPAGATION  BT  CUTTINGS 

A  CUTTING  is  a  detached  portion  of  a  stem  which,  when 
inserted  in  sand,  soil,,  water,  or  some  other  favorable 
medium,,  will  produce  roots.  It  is  not  a  natural  means  of 
multiplication,  but  is  used  to  propagate  plants  that  do  not 
come  true  to  seed,  or  those  that  do  not  propagate  more 
readily  in  some  other  manner.  Nearly  all  plants  may  be 
propagated  by  cuttings,  but  some  species  and  even  some 
varieties  of  the  same  species  may  be  multiplied  more 
readily  than  others  by  this  means. 

That  a  cutting  may  develop  a  new  plant,  it  must  possess 
the  following  essentials:  (i)  a  certain  amount  of  healthy 
tissue,  (2)  stored  food,  and  (3)  a  growing  point.  The 
portions  of  the  plant  selected  for  cuttings  are,  therefore, 
the  younger  matured  growths  of  the  roots  or  steins  con- 
taining one  or  more  buds. 

External  Requirements.  —  In  order  that  cuttings  may 
callus  and  send  out  roots  readily,  certain  external  condi- 
tions must  be  supplied  and  maintained.  The  principal 
conditions  are  temperature,  moisture,  and  soil- 
Temperature  -  It  is  important  that  the  temperature 
be  carefully  controlled.  Heat  stimulates  plant  growth, 
hence  in  the  propagation  of  plants  by  cuttings,  it  is  es- 
pecially desirable  to  supply  bottom  heat  that  the  soil  may 
be  warmer  than  the  air.  This  tends  to  stimulate  the  forma- 
tion of  roots,  and  checks  the  growth  of  the  foliage  until 

217 


2i8  PROPAGATION  BY  CUTTINGS 

roots  are  formed  to  supply  food  and  moisture.  Many 
plants  will  not  root  at  all  without  bottom  heat.  This  is 
supplied  out  of  doors  by  the  natural  heat  of  the  soil  in  the 
spring  and  summer,  and  for  some  plants,  this  is  often 
sufficient.  With  others,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  soil  by  artificial  means.  In  green- 
house work  the  soil  of  the  cutting  bench  is  heated  by  steam 
or  hot-water  pipes  placed  beneath  it.  Hotbeds  are  often 
used,  the  heat  of  the  soil  being  raised  by  the  fermenting 
manure  placed  below  the  soil.  Frequently  cuttings  are 
buried  inverted  with  their  bases  nearest  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  This  tends  to  hold  the  buds  in  check  and  accelerates 
the  rooting.  If  placed  out  of  doors  in  the  fall  or  early 
spring,  the  ends  should  be  callused  and  ready  for  planting 
by  May  or  early  June. 

The  air  temperature  is  also  important.  It  is  desirable 
and  often  necessary  to  check  the  growth  of  tops  until  the 
roots  have  formed.  A  cutting  supplied  with  warm  air  soon 
exhausts  the  meager  amount  of  food  stored  in  its  leaves, 
and  as  it  cannot  well  take  in  moisture  until  the  root  hairs 
have  developed,  it  may  wilt  and  die.  It  is,  therefore, 
necessary  to  maintain  a  low  air  temperature.  In  practice 
this  is  accomplished  by  means  of  shading  and  ventilation, 
or  by  burying  cuttings  in  an  inverted  position  as  has  been 
described. 

Uniformity  in  temperature  is  very  important.  The 
variations  between  day  and  night  temperatures  are  not 
conducive  to  the  most  favorable  development  of  cuttings. 
Under  most  conditions  a  soil  temperature  of  65°  F.  and  an 
air  temperature  of  50°  to  55°  F.  is  ideal.  Frequently, 
however,  the  temperature  of  the  soil  may  be  raised  some- 
what higher  to  hasten  the  development  of  roots. 


EXTERNAL   REQUIREMENTS 


219 


Moisture.  —  Moisture  is  essential  to  prevent  wilting 
and  to  promote  root  development.  It  is  furnished  to  the 
plant  by  means  of  frequent  waterings  and  maintained  by 
shading  to  reduce  transpiration.  With  plants  having  a 
large  leaf  surface,  it  is  especially  important  that  the  air 
be  kept  in  a  moist  condition. 

Various  devices  are  used  for  confining  the  air  about 
cuttings  to  prevent  excessive  evaporation.     A  bell  jar  is 
probably    the    simplest 
method.     A  very  prac-  ^J| 

tical  device  for  the  home 
consists  of  a  box  covered 
with  a  pane  of  glass. 
In  greenhouse  work,  the 
cutting  bench  is  covered 
with  sash  when  the  re- 
quired moisture  cannot 
be  easily  maintained  by 
other  means.  Gener- 
ally, however,  frequent 
watering  and  shading  by 
means  of  whitewashing 
the  glass  of  the  green- 
house or  by  placing  lath 
screens  above  is  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  exces- 
sive transpiration. 

Soil.  —  The  medium  in  which  the  cutting  is  placed  for 
rooting  is  as  important  as  the  temperature  and  moisture  con- 
ditions. Some  plants  may  be  rooted  by  placing  the  cuttings 
in  water.  Others  may  be  rooted  by  placing  them  in  moist 
sphagnum  moss ;  but  as  a  rule,  soil  is  most  satisfactory. 


Pig.  119.  —  Plant  growing  under  a  bell  jar 
to  prevent  excessive  evaporation. 


220  PROPAGATION   BY   CUTTINGS 

An  ideal  soil  for  cuttings  should  be  of  such  a  texture  as 
to  become  neither  puddled  nor  baked.  Since  drainage  is 
of  so  much  importance,  coarse,  clean  sand  that  is  free 
from  clay  and  organic  matter  is  to  be  preferred  for  green- 
wood cuttings.  Fine  sand  packs  too  firmly  about  the 
cutting,  while  organic  matter  in  the  soil  holds  too  much 
moisture  and  promotes  the  growth  of  injurious  plant  dis- 
eases. Coarse  sand  also  induces  the  formation  of  longer 
and  better  roots.  For  some  of  the  hardwood  cuttings 
planted  out  of  doors,  a  good  garden  soil  of  a  light  mellow 
character  is  preferred.  All  cuttings  except  the  willow, 
dogwood,  poplar,  and  other  plants  thriving  naturally  in 
wet  soils  prefer  good  drainage. 

Classes  of  Cuttings.  —  Cuttings  are  divided  into  four 
classes  with  reference  to  the  parts  of  the  plant  from  which 
they  are  taken.  These  are  tuber  cuttings,  root  cuttings, 
leaf  cuttings,  and  stem  cuttings. 

Tuber  Cuttings.  —  Plants  forming  tubers  are  generally 
multiplied  by  tuber  cuttings.  The  essentials  of  a  tuber 


Fig.  120.  —  Tuber  cuttings  of  Irish  potatoes  ready  for  planting. 

cutting  are  a  bud  or  eye  and  a  sufficient  piece  of  the  tuber 
attached  to  produce  growth.  The  roots  of  a  tuber  cutting 
come  from  the  base  of  the  sprout  produced,  and  by  re- 
moving these  sprouts  as  soon  as  they  form  roots  and  leaves 
new  plants  are  obtained.  In  this  manner,  a  large  number 


ROOT  AND   LEAF   CUTTINGS 


221 


may  be  produced  from  a  single  tuber.  Sweet  potatoes  are 
propagated  in  this  manner.  Irish  potatoes  are  propagated 
usually  by  using  the  whole  tuber  or  a  portion  of  it  contain- 
ing one  or  more  eyes.  Many  experiments  have  been  per- 
formed to  ascertain  the  ideal  size  to  plant  for  seed  to  obtain 
the  maximum  yield.  In  most  cases,  the  larger  pieces  have 
given  the  greater  yields,  and  good-sized  potatoes  cut  in 
halves  have  yielded  more  than  small  potatoes  similarly 
cut,  and  more  than  larger  ones  cut  into  many  pieces. 

Root  Cuttings.  —  Of  the  plants  commercially  propagated 
by  root  cuttings,  the  horse-radish  and  blackberry  are 
familiar  examples.  The  smaller  roots 
are  cut  into  pieces  one  to  four  inches 
long  as  soon  as  the  growth  ceases  in 
the  fall,  and  are  packed  in  boxes  with 
moist  sand  or  moss.  They  are  then 
placed  in  a  cool  cellar  for  the  winter 
and  planted  out  of  doors  in  the  spring. 
It  is  difficult  to  tell  the  base  from  the 
top  of  horse-radish  cuttings,  and  as 
it  is  necessary  to  plant  them  in  an 
upright  position  in  the  soil  to  obtain 
good  straight  roots,  the  cuttings 
are  made  with  a  diagonal  cut  at 
the  bottom  and  a  horizontal  cut 
across  the  top.  Blackberry  cuttings 
may  be  planted  horizontally  in  the 
soil. 

Leaf    Cuttings.  —  Plants,  like    the 
begonias,  having  thick  fleshy  leaves, 
store  large  quantities  of  plant  food  either  in  the  body 
of  the  leaf  or  in  its  larger  ribs.      When  these  ribs  are 


Fig.  12  x.  —  A  rooted  leaf 
cutting  of  Rex  Begonia, 
showing  formation  of  new 
plant. 


222  PROPAGATION   BY   CUTTINGS 

ruptured  and  placed  in  contact  with  moist  sand,  they 
readily  develop  stems  and  roots.  With  such  plants,  the 
following  method  of  propagation  is  practiced.  The  leaf 
may  be  spread  upon  a  cutting  bench  and  pinned  down  with 
toothpicks  thrust  through  the  ribs,  or  the  ribs  may  be  cut 
slightly,  and  the  leaf  held  in  close  contact  with  the  surface 
of  the  sand  by  means  of  light  weights  placed  on  top  of  the 
leaf.  From  the  wounds,  roots  develop,  and  the  plant  after- 
wards produces  leaves. 

Leaves  may  also  be  cut  into  small  wedge-shaped  pieces, 
each  piece  containing  a  portion  of  a  midrib.  These  pieces 
may  be  set  vertically  in  the  sand  like  ordinary  cuttings, 
and  roots  will  develop  from  the  point  of  the  midrib.  In 
selecting  leaves  for  cuttings,  vigorous,  healthy,  well- 
matured  ones  should  be  used.  Leaf  cuttings  are  handled 
in  the  same  manner  as  softwood  cuttings,  in  so  far  as  temper- 
ature and  moisture  are  concerned. 

Stem  Cuttings.  —  One  of  the  most  common  methods  of 
propagation  is  by  stem  cuttings.  From  some  plants,  the 
cuttings  are  taken  when  the  wood  is  matured ;  cuttings 
thus  taken  are  called  hardwood  cuttings.  From  other 
plants  they  are  taken  from  the  growing  immature  stems, 
and  are  called  softwood  cuttings.  As  the  treatment  for 
each  is  quite  different,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  them 
separately. 

Hardwood  Cuttings  are  made  any  time  after  the  stems 
have  dropped  their  leaves  in  the  fall,  and  before  the  buds 
start  in  the  spring.  The  wood  at  this  time  is  matured 
and  quite  dormant.  Hardwood  cuttings  generally  require 
a  long  time  to  root,  therefore  it  is  advisable  to  make  them 
in  the  fall  or  early  winter  in  order  to  allow  them  time  to 
callus  before  spring. 


HARDWOOD    CUTTINGS 


223 


If  bottom  heat  is  to  be  supplied  to  the  soil  in  which  the 
cuttings  are  placed,  they  will  be  found  to  do  better  if  given 
a  rest  before  starting  their  growth. 

Often  hardwood  cuttings  are  taken  in  the  early  fall  and 
planted  directly  in  the  field.  Currants,  gooseberries,  and 


Fig.  122.  —  Hardwood  cuttings:   (a)  simple  cutting;  (6)  heel  cutting;  (c)  mallet  cut- 
ting; (d)  one-eye  cutting. 

sometimes  grapes  are  propagated  in  this  way.  There  is 
no  rule  governing  the  length  of  a  hardwood  cutting  although 
they  are  generally  made  from  eight  to  ten  inches  long. 
The  cutting  should  contain  one  or  more  buds  below  the 
ground  and  one  above. 

The  various  kinds  of  hardwood  cuttings  may  be  classified 
as  follows :  (i)  simple,  (2)  heel,  (3)  mallet,  and  (4)  one- 
eye  cuttings. 

(i)  A  Simple  Cutting  consists  of  a  portion  of  a  stem  having 
two  or  more  buds.  The  base  of  the  cutting  is  generally 


224  PROPAGATION  BY   CUTTINGS 

made  just  below  a  node,  as  roots  seem  to  form  more  readily 
at  this  point.  The  top  is  cut  some  distance  above  the 
highest  bud.  Usually  the  stem  is  of  the  present  or  past 
season's  growth  rather  than  of  older  wood,  although  with 
some  plants  the  base  is  often  cut  at  the  annual  ring  just 
below  the  past  season's  growth.  This  method  of  making 
cuttings  is  used  with  currants,  gooseberries,  grapes,  dog- 
woods, willows,  poplars,  and  many  of  the  ornamental 
shrubs  and  trees. 

(2)  A  Heel  Cutting  is  made  like  a  simple  cutting,  but 
with  a  small  portion  of  the  parent  branch  forming  a  heel 
at  its  base.     Some  stems  root  most  readily  when  cut  in 
this  manner. 

(3)  A  Mallet  Cutting  is  formed  when  an  entire  section 
of  the  parent  branch  is  removed  instead  of  a  heel.     Often 
plants  that  will  not  take  root  by  simple  cuttings  are  easily 
propagated   by   this   form.     Many   evergreens   and   some 
deciduous  trees  root  more  readily  from  mallet   and  heel 
cuttings  than  from  the  other  cuttings. 

(4)  One-eye  Cuttings  may  be  used  when  a  large  stock 
of  cuttings  is  desired  from  few  plants.     These  consist  of 
stem  cuttings  having  but  one  bud,  the  stem  being  cut  a 
short  distance  below  and  above  a  bud.     These  cuttings 
often  require  artificial  heat  to  stimulate  their  callusing. 
If  made  in  the  fall,  the  cuttings  may  be  layered  in  a  box  of 
sand  and  placed  in  a  cool  greenhouse  over  winter.     In 
planting  out  in  the  spring,  they  should  be  placed  hori- 
zontally about  an  inch  below  the  surface  of  a  moist  and 
finely  prepared  soil.     As  such  plants  are  not  so  strong  as 
those  from  two-eye  or  three-eye  cuttings,  greater  care  is 
necessary  in  planting.     It  is  not  advisable  to  use  them 
except  when  more  vigorous  cuttings  are  unavailable. 


SOFTWOOD   CUTTINGS 


225 


Softwood  Cuttings  may  be  used  in  the  propagation  of 
nearly  all  greenhouse  plants.  For  this  purpose,  wood  that 
is  neither  too  soft  nor  too  hard  should  be  selected.  Firm 
and  brittle  stems  root  most  readily.  In  propagating 
herbaceous  plants  by  softwood  cuttings,  the  tips  of  the 
rapid  growing  shoots  are  selected.  Such  cuttings  may 
vary  in  length  from  an  inch  to  three  or  four  inches  with 


Fig.  123.  —  Softwood  cuttings.  A  geranium  plant  and  shoot  taken  from  it  for  a  cutting. 
The  one  held  in  the  hand  is  ready  for  planting.  Carnation  cuttings  in  the  back- 
ground. 

different  plants.  Although  the  base  of  a  cutting  is  gener- 
ally cut  below  the  node,  it  is  not  always  necessary  to 
do  so,  especially  with  herbaceous  cuttings  that  root  very 
readily.  The  leaves  are  generally  removed  from  the 
lower  portion  of  the  stem  and  the  cutting  planted  deep 
enough  to  hold  it  in  place  and  insure  uniform  temperature 
and  moisture.  Sometimes  a  portion  of  the  remaining 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. 1 5 


226  PROPAGATION   BY   CUTTINGS 

leaf  surface  is  cut  off  to  reduce  transpiration  and  prevent 
wilting. 

The  cuttings  are  then  placed  in  sharp  sand  in  a  cutting 
bench  or  propagating  box.  As  the  cuttings  should  never 
be  permitted  to  wilt,  it  is  well  to  water  them  immediately 
after  planting  and  to  shade  them  with  newspapers. 

Cuttings  of  many  of  our  ornamental  shrubs  and  vines 
are  made  during  the  summer  months  from  the  partially 
matured  growths  and  placed  in  outdoor  frames.  These 
should  be  given  protection  during  the  first  winter  but  after- 
wards may  be  treated  the  same  as  plants  from  hardwood 
cuttings. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  in  detail  the  three  essentials  of  a  good  cutting.     How 
would  you  proceed  to  determine  whether  a  cutting  is  of  strong 
or  weak  vitality  ? 

2.  What  are  the  external  requirements  of  cuttings?     Why 
apply  bottom  heat  ?     Suggest  three  methods  of  applying  bottom 
heat  to  herbaceous  plants. 

3.  Make  samples  of  simple,  heel,  mallet,  and  one-eye  cut- 
tings of  the  grape  or  some  other  woody  vine. 

4.  Obtain  specimens  of  cactus,  begonia,  peperomia,  or  other 
thick-leaved  plants  and  examine,  noting  spines,  mode  of  pro- 
tection from  outside,  and  thickness  of  leaf.     Make  three  out- 
line drawings  of  the  leaf  and  show  by  dotted  lines  where  the  leaf 
should  be  cut  to  propagate  it  by  the  many  different  methods 
of  making  leaf  cuttings. 

HOME   PROJECTS 

i.  Plant  two  rows  each  of  large  whole  potatoes,  medium- 
sized  whole  potatoes,  small  whole  potatoes,  medium-sized  seed 
halved,  medium-sized  seed  quartered,  medium-sized  seed  cut  to 


HOME   PROJECTS  227 

three  eyes,  medium- sized  seed  cut  to  two  eyes,  and  medium-sized 
seed  cut  to  one  eye.  Label  each  row.  Tabulate  results. 

(To  the  teacher:  This  work  should  extend  through  one 
season  and  the  student  should  be  given  credit  for  thorough- 
ness and  completeness  of  work  done.) 

2.  Make  several  hardwood  cuttings  of  each  of  the  following 
plants :  currant,  gooseberry,  grape,  rose,  barberry,  spiraea, 
deutzia,  lilac,  philadelphus,  willow,  dogwood,  poplar.  Tie 
in  separate  bundles,  label,  and  pack  in  a  moist  cool  place.  Handle 
and  plant  in  the  spring  as  outlined  in  the  text. 


CHAPTER   IV 
GRAFTING 

GRAFTING  is  the  process  of  inserting  a  stem  or  bud  of  one 
plant  into  another  plant  in  such  a  manner  that  the  two 
unite  and  grow.  The  portion  of  the  plant  to  which  the 
graft  is  applied  is  called  the  stock  and  the  piece  inserted 
in  the  stock  is  called  the  scion.  The  stock  furnishes  the 
nourishment  and  the  future  growth  develops  from  the 
scion. 

The  cambium  layer  is  the  living  tissue  between  the  wood 
and  the  bark.  In  all  kinds  of  grafting,  it  is  essential  that 
the  cambium  of  the  stock  and  scion  touch  each  other. 
When  the  graft  is  made,  the  wounded  cambium  of  both 
scion  and  stock  begins  to  produce  a  new  tissue  known  as 
the  callus.  The  two  parts,  being  maintained  in  rigid 
contact,  grow  together  making  a  permanent  union. 

Functions  of  Grafting.  —  (i)  Grafting  is  used  to  multiply 
varieties  that  will  not  come  true  from  seed.  The  seeds  of 
most  of  our  tree  fruits  produce  plants  that  bear  fruits  un- 
like the  parents  and  generally  of  inferior  quality.  Seeds 
of  the  Baldwin  apple  or  of  the  Bartlett  pear  do  not  produce 
trees  of  these  varieties.  Hence,  to  produce  a  tree  of  similar 
characteristics,  it  is  essential  to  propagate  by  grafting. 
All  the  common  tree  fruits  of  America  and  many  of  the 
ornamental  shrubs  and  trees  are  propagated  by  this  means. 
The  principal  function  of  grafting,  therefore,  is  to  per- 
petuate varieties. 

228 


LIMITATIONS  OF   GRAFTING  229 

(2)  Grafting  is  also  used  to  change  the  natural  habit  of 
growth  or  stature  of  a  tree.     Apples  are  grafted  upon 
slow-growing  sorts  that  tend  to  produce  a  slower  growth 
of   the   scion.     For   the   same   reason,   pears   are   grafted 
upon  quince.     Weeping  willows  and  mulberries  are  often 
grafted   upon   stocks  producing   straight   upright   trunks, 
thus  forming  umbrella-shaped  trees.     In  these  as  well  as 
in  other  ways,  grafting  is  used  to  change  the  stature  of  a 
plant. 

(3)  Grafting  is  used  to  adapt  varieties  to  soil  conditions. 
Plants  are  frequently  grafted  upon  stocks  that  thrive  better 
upon  the  soil  that  is  to  be  used  to  grow  them.     Plums 
thrive  best  upon  a  moderately  heavy  soil  while  peaches 
prefer  a  sandy  soil.     In  growing  peaches,  therefore,  upon 
a  heavy  soil  they  are  often  grafted  upon  plum  stocks,  and 
plums  to  be  grown  upon  sandy  soil  may  be  grafted  upon 
peach  stocks. 

(4)  Grafting  is  also  used  to  change  an  undesirable  va- 
riety to  a  desirable  one.     When  a  tree  comes  into  bearing 
it  may  be  found  to  be  of  an  undesirable  sort.     As  it  takes 
ten  years  for  most  of  our  apples  to  come  into  bearing,  one 
can  hardly  afford  to  destroy  a  tree  and  wait  for  a  new  one 
to  come  into  fruit.     Upon  the  branches  of  the  undesirable 
tree  may  be  grafted  the  scions  of  a  desirable  variety,  and 
in  a  few  years  the  tree  will  produce  abundant  crops  of  the 
desired  variety. 

Limitations  of  Grafting.  —  Probably  all  plants  which 
contain  a  distinct  bark  and  wood  can  be  grafted.  There 
is  no  definite  rule,  however,  and  the  only  method  of  deter- 
mining the  affinity  between  two  kinds  of  plants  is  by  trial. 
Under  ordinary  conditions,  however,  the  following  results 
are  obtained. 


230  GRAFTING 

(1)  Different  varieties  of  the  same  species  almost  always 
unite.     The  Northern  Spy  apple  may  be  grafted  upon  the 
Baldwin  apple  although  the  Bartlett  pear  does  not  take 
so  well  upon  the  Kieffer  pear.      In  the  former  case  the 
fruits  are  of  the  same  species  while  in  the  latter  they  are  of 
different  species. 

(2)  Plants  of  different  species  but  of  the  same  genus  often 
unite.     Peaches,  for  example,  may  be  grafted  upon  plums, 
or  plums  upon  peaches.     Sometimes  a  graft  may  be  worked 
one  way  successfully,  but  it  may  fail  to  unite  in  the  op- 
posite way.     The  sweet  cherry  will  grow  upon  a  Mahaleb 
stock,  but  the  Mahaleb  will  not  grow  upon  the  sweet  cherry 
stock. 

(3)  Plants  of  different  genera  but  of  the  same  family 
sometimes  unite.     The  pear,  for  example,  unites  success- 
fully upon  the  thorn,  and  the  oak  upon  the  chestnut;  in 
fact,  the  pear  grafts  more  successfully  on  the  thorn  than 
upon    other   pears.     Generally,    however,    plants    do    not 
unite  as  successfully  when  of  different  genera  as  when  the 
botanical  relationship  is  closer. 

Kinds  of  Grafting.  --  The  three  principal  kinds  of  graft- 
ing are  budding,  scion  grafting,  and  inarching  or  approach 
grafting. 

Budding.  —  Budding  is  really  the  grafting  of  a  small 
portion  of  bark  containing  a  living  bud.  It  is  used  with 
stock  of  small  diameter  and  preferably  not  more  than  one 
year  old.  There  is  no  definite  rule,  however,  as  to  which 
plants  should  be  budded  in  preference  to  scion  grafting. 
Many  plants,  as  the  apple  and  pear,  are  propagated  both 
ways,  depending  much  upon  local  conditions.  Budding  is 
the  only  method  extensively  used,  however,  in  propagating 
all  stone  fruits  such  as  the  peaches,  plums,  and  cherries. 


CUTTING  BUDS  231 

Budding  is  usually  performed  in  the  North  during  late 
summer  and  early  fall,  while  in  the  South  it  is  frequently 
performed  in  June.  It  may  be  done  at  any  time  of  the 
year  when  mature  buds  can  be  obtained  and  the  bark 
slips  readily.  When  spring  budding  is  practiced 
in  the  North,  the  buds  are  secured  from  twigs 
of  the  previous  season's  growth ;  but  with  late 
summer  work,  the  buds  are  secured  from  grow- 
ing twigs  of  the  present  season. 

Selecting  Buds.  — Twigs  from  which  the  buds 
are  selected  are  known  as  bud  sticks.  Strong 
twigs  of  the  present  season's  growth  are  selected 
for  bud  sticks.  As  these  twigs  are  usually  cut 
while  still  in  foliage,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  them 
from  wilting.  Usually  the  leaves  are  clipped  at 
once  to  lessen  the  transpiration  of  moisture. 
About  half  an  inch  of  the  petiole  of  the  leaf 
beneath  each  bud  is  left  on  to  serve  as  a  handle 
while  inserting  the  bud.  The  weak  buds  at  the 
tips  of  the  branches  are  generally  discarded 
unless  the  number  is  limited,  as  sometimes 
happens  in  propagating  new  varieties.  The  bud 
sticks  should  be  wrapped  in  moist  cloth  as  soon 
as  cut  and  kept  in  a  cool  place  until  ready  for 
use. 

Cutting  Buds.  —  From  a  bud  stick,  a  bud  with  Fig.  124.  — A 

i  •        i        <•  f          i'ii          bud     stick 

a  piece  of  bark  is  cut  out  in  the  form  of  a  shield      showing 

method   of 

about  an  inch  long.      The  cut  should  be  deep      budsngthe 
enough  to  remove  but  a  small  portion  of  wood 
that  is  cut  away  with  the  bud.     Some  grafters  prefer  to 
remove  this  wood  before  inserting  the  bud  in  the  stock 
while  others  do  not.     If  the  bud  has  been  cut  very  deep, 


232 


GRAFTING 


however,  or  if  the  wood  is  hard  and  dry,  it  is  better  to 
remove  it. 

Inserting  Buds  in  Stock.  —  The  stock  is  prepared  by 
removing  all  the  leaves  and  branches  from  the  area  to 
be  budded.  Peaches,  plums,  and  other  nursery  trees 
are  generally  budded  as  near  to  the  ground  as  the 
operator  can  work,  or  not  more  than  two  or  three  inches 
above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  bud  is  usually  set  on 

the  north  side  of  the  stock 
that  it  may  be  shaded 
from  the  sun  and  kept 
cool  and  moist.  A  bud- 
ding knife  having  a  thin 
blade  curved  at  the  end 
(Fig.  125)  is  used  to  make 
the  incision,  which  con- 
sists of  a  vertical  slit 
about  an  inch  long  and 
just  deep  enough  to  cut 
through  the  inner  bark, 
and  also  a  horizontal  cut 
made  across  the  top  of 
this  vertical  cut,  forming  the  capital  letter  "  T."  (Fig. 
126  a.)  The  bark  is  then  loosened  to  receive  the  bud. 
(Fig.  126  b.}  The  bud  is  inserted  and  pushed  in  under 
the  bark  as  far  as  possible  with  the  ringer ;  then  the  back 
of  the  knife  blade  is  thrust  against  the  petiole  of  the 
leaf,  and  the  bud  is  pushed  into  its  final  position.  (Fig. 
126  c.)  If  a  small  portion  of  the  bark  is  still  above  the 
incision,  it  may  be  cut  away  without  harm.  The  bud  is 
then  tied  with  raffia,  soft  string,  or  tape,  by  winding  it 
around  once  or  twice  both  below  and  above  the  bud. 


Fig.  125. —  Cutting  a  bud  with  a  budding  knife. 


SPLICE   GRAFTING 


233 


(Fig.  126  d.)  This  is  left  for  one  or  two  weeks  during 
which  time  the  bud  sets.  The  tape  is  then  cut  to  prevent 
girdling. 

A  bud  inserted  in  late  summer  remains  dormant  until 
the  following  spring.  After  it  begins  to  grow  in  the  spring, 
the  stock  should  be  cut  just  above  the  bud  that  the  growth 
of  the  bud  may  be  accelerated  and  the  wound  quickly 
healed  over.  (Fig.  126  e.)  All  suckers  and  water  sprouts 
should  be  kept  pruned  off. 

Splice  Grafting.  —  Splice  grafting  is  a  form  of  scion 
grafting  used  to  unite  small  scions  and  stocks  of  nearly  the 


Fig.  126.  —  Steps  in  the  process  of  budding. 

same  size.  The  base  of  the  scion  is  trimmed  with  an  even 
diagonal  cut  and  the  stock  is  cut  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
two  are  then  placed  together  so  that  the  cambium  layer 
of  one  is  in  contact  with  the  cambium  layer  of  the  other, 
at  least  along  one  side  of  the  union,  and  the  graft  is  bound 
tightly  with  soft  string,  waxed  cloth,  or  grafting  cord  to 
hold  the  two  parts  in  place.  This  is  the  simplest  graft  to 
make  but  it  does  not  hold  so  well  as  some  other  forms. 


234 


GRAFTING 


Tongue  Grafting. -- This  method  is  the  same  as  splice 
grafting  except  that  a  vertical  cut  is  made  along  the  diagonal 
cut  in  both  stock  and  scion  to  form  a  tongue.  When  the 
tongues  are  inserted  or  pushed  together  they  not  only 
expose  more  of  the  cambium  but  also  exert  a  binding  force 
and  a  better  union  is  insured.  The  graft  should  be  wound 

with  waxed  cloth  or  cord 
as  in  the  splice  graft. 
This  method  is  univer- 
sally used  in  root  graft- 
ing. Seedling  stocks  with 
long  straight  taproots 
are  desirable  for  this 
purpose.  In  whole  root 
grafting,  the  entire  root 
is  used  with  each  scion. 
In  piece  root  grafting 
each  root  is  cut  into  two 
or  more  pieces. 

Root  grafting  is  used 
to  propagate  many  of 
the  apples,  pears,  and 
other  pomaceous  fruits. 
This  form  of  grafting  has 
an  advantage  over  bud- 
ding in  that  it  is  usually  done  indoors  during  the  winter, 
while  budding  must  be  performed  during  the  growing  season. 
Both  scions  and  roots  are  collected  in  the  late  fall  and 
stored  in  sand,  sawdust,  or  moss,  in  a  cool  place.  About 
January  or  February  the  stock  is  grafted.  The  complete 
grafts  are  wrapped  tightly  with  waxed  string  or  cloth  and 
stored  in  a  cool,  moist  place  until  spring.  Callusing  will 


Fig.  127.  —  Tongue  grafting:  (a)  the  scion; 
(b)  the  stock ;  (c)  stock  and  scion  united ; 
(a)  graft  wrapped. 


CLEFT   GRAFTING 


235 


have  taken  place  by  that  time,  and  when  planted  in  the 
nursery  row  the  scions  will  start  to  grow. 

Cleft  Grafting.  —  When  branches  of  from  one  to  two 
inches  in  diameter  are  grafted,  the  cleft  graft  is  the  method 
commonly  used.  This  consists  simply  in  cutting  off  the 
branch  at  right  angles  and  with  a  grafting  chisel  making 
a  cleft  deep  enough 
to  accommodate  the 
scions.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  scions  are 
collected  during  the 
late  fall  or  early  winter, 
although  success  is  fre- 
quently obtained  with 
scions  cut  at  the  time 
of  grafting.  The  twigs 
selected  should  be 
about  eight  to  ten 
inches  long,  of  the  past 
season's  growth.  They 
are  then  generally  cut 
into  pieces  each  con- 
taining two  or  three 
buds.  The  base  of  a 
scion  is  trimmed  to 
form  a  wedge,  about 
one  and  a  half  inches  long.  The  outer  edge  of  the  wedge 
is  made  slightly  thicker  so  that  the  pressure  of  the  stock 
against  it  on  this  side  may  bring  the  cambium  layers  in 
close  contact.  It  is  also  desirable  to  have  a  bud  on  the 
outside  of  the  scion  just  above  the  wedge.  The  scions 
are  then  inserted  into  the  cleft  in  such  a  manner  that  the 


Fig.  128.  — Bridge  grafting.  When  the  bark  of  fruit 
trees  has  been  injured  by  mice  or  rabbits  the 
trees  may  often  be  saved  by  this  method  of 
grafting. 


236 


GRAFTING 


cambium  layer  on  the  outer  side  of  the  scion  may  be 
in  contact  with  the  cambium  layer  of  the  stock.  That 
the  cambium  surfaces  may  be  brought  into  direct  contact, 
at  least  at  one  point,  the  scions  are  generally  slanted 
slightly  outward.  Two  scions  are  placed  in  each  cleft  to 
insure  success,  and  if  each  grows,  the  weaker  one  is  after- 
wards removed. 

Cleft  grafting  is  extensively  used  in  top-working  trees. 
A  most  important  factor  in  this  process  consists  in  the 


Fig.  129.  —  Cleft  grafting:  (a)  scion;  (6)  scions  inserted  in  cleft;  (c)  cleft  graft  waxed; 
(d)  cross  section  of  stock  and  scions. 

selection  of  the  branches  to  form  the  top.  Scions  when 
grafted  always  grow  upward  regardless  of  the  former 
direction  of  the  stock.  This  tends  to  produce  a  narrow, 
high-topped  tree.  Great  care  should  be  exercised,  there- 
fore, to  select  branches  well  away  from  the  trunk  and 
covering  all  the  fruit-bearing  surface.  In  top- working  a 
matured  tree,  it  will  be  necessary  to  graft  a  large  number 
of  branches,  but  only  about  one  third  of  these  should  be 
worked  in  a  single  season.  It  takes  from  three  to  five  years 


INARCHING  OR  APPROACH   GRAFTING 


237 


to  renew  the  entire  top  of  a  large  tree.  All  the  important 
branches  should  be  grafted  if  the  original  fruit-bearing  sur- 
face is  to  be  maintained.  This  work  is  performed  about  the 
time  the  trees  are  ordinarily  pruned  in  the  spring,  and  just  be- 
fore growth  starts.  After  the  grafts  are  inserted  in  the  cleft, 
all  the  exposed  surface  of 
the  stock  and  tips  of  the 
scions  are  coated  with 
grafting  wax  to  keep  the 
scions  moist  and  to  pre- 
vent decay. 

Inarching  or  Approach 
Grafting.  —  There  are 
many  plants  that  cannot 
be  successfully  grafted 
by  any  of  the  previous 
methods.  Such  plants 
can  be  more  conveniently 
propagated  by  inarching. 
With  this  method,  each 
plant  remains  attached 
to  its  own  roots  and  the 
scion  is  detached  only  Fig'  I3°'  ~  Top  grafting  a  young  apple  tree' 
after  the  graft  has  united.  To  practice  inarching,  the 
plants  must  be  grown  near  together  or  in  pots,  that  it  may 
be  possible  to  bring  them  together  and  to  unite  the  stock 
and  scion  without  detaching  them  from  the  plants.  The 
cambium  layer  of  each  may  be  exposed  by  any  cut  that 
will  enable  the  two  to  come  into  direct  contact  when  tied. 
In  some  plants  a  tongue  is  cut  along  the  side  of  the  stem 
of  each ;  in  others,  as  herbaceous  plants,  the  outer  bark 
is  simply  scraped  to  expose  the  cambium.  It  is  important 


238  GRAFTING 

that  the  two  plants  be  tied  in  such  a  manner  as  to  hold  them 
perfectly  rigid  until  the  union  is  complete.  Raffia  or  soft 
string  is  generally  used  for  tying  herbaceous  grafts,  and 
they  are  covered  with  sphagnum  moss  to  keep  them  moist. 
The  grafts  of  trees  and  shrubs  are  sometimes  waxed. 
After  the  two  plants  have  united  the  stock  above  the  union 
may  be  pruned  off  and  the  plant  originally  producing  the 
scion  may  be  cut  below  the  union.  Potatoes  may  be 
grafted  upon  tomatoes  by  this  method,  and  many  green- 
house plants  may  be  similarly  propagated. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Go  out  into  an  old  orchard  and  dig  away  the  soil  from 
the  trunks  of  the  apple  trees  until  the  place  where  the  root 
graft  was  made  is  disclosed  to  view.     Note  if  there  are  any 
places  where  the  wound  did  not  heal  and  thus  allowed  the 
entry  of  disease-producing  fungi.     This  will  be  shown  by  a 
decayed  area. 

2.  Explain  in  detail  the  method  of  growing  a  Baldwin  apple 
tree  from  unknown  seed. 

3.  Make  grafting  wax  according  to  the  following  directions: 
Weigh  out  i  part  by  weight  of  tallow,  2  parts  of  beeswax,  and 
4  parts  of  resin.     Pulverize  the  resin,  cut  up  the  beeswax  and 
tallow  and  boil  together  slowly  until  all  is  entirely  dissolved. 
Pour  the  mass  into  a  pail  of  cold  water  and  after  greasing  the 
hands,  squeeze  out  all  the  water  and  pull  like  molasses  candy 
until  the  wax  becomes  light  colored.     Be  careful  not  to  pour 
the  hot  mass  into  the  water  too  quickly.     The  wax  should  be 
pulled  until  it  is  cool  and  then  rolled  into  lengths  and  wrapped 
in  paraffin  paper  until  the  next  laboratory  period.     Grafting 
cord  for  binding  grafts  may  be  prepared  by  putting  a  ball  of 
No.  1 8  knitting  cotton  into  a  kettle  of  melted  grafting  wax  and 
allowing  it  to  become  thoroughly  saturated. 


HOME   PROJECT  239 

4.  Visit  an  apple  orchard  and  collect  twenty-five  scions. 
Tie  them  into  a  bundle,  and  label  with  name  of  the  variety, 
the  date,  and  the  collector's  name.     Pack  away  in  a  cool  place 
in  damp  sand. 

5.  Collect  the  same  number  of  bud  sticks  from  peach  trees. 
Label  and  store  as  in  previous  exercise. 

6.  The  teacher  should   collect    a  number  of   willow  sticks 
three  eighths  to  half  an  inch  in  diameter  sometime  previous  to 
this  exercise  and  place  them  in  a  pail  of  water  in  a  warm  room 
to  have  them  in  such  condition  that  the  bark  will  slip  readily 
for  budding.     With  the  peach  bud  sticks  of  the  previous  exer- 
cise at  hand  and  the  willow  sticks  as  stocks  the  students  should 
perform  the  operation  of  budding,  learning  the  proper  method 
of  cutting  the  buds,  making  the  incision,  inserting  the  bud, 
and  tying  the  same. 

7.  Collect  a  number  of  pieces  of  apple  limbs  one  and  a  half 
to  two  inches  thick  and  a  foot  or  more  long.     Using  these  as 
stocks  and  with    the  apple   scions  previously  collected  each 
student  should  perform   the  operation  of  cleft  grafting,  until 
each  becomes  proficient. 

8.  Visit  a  neighboring  orchard  and  select  the  branches  that 
should  be  grafted  in  top- working  the  trees.     Perform  the  work 
if  possible. 

HOME   PROJECT 

Plant  about  a  hundred  peach,  apple,  or  plum  seeds  in  the 
spring,  and  bud  them  at  the  proper  time  with  standard  varie- 
ties. Keep  an  accurate  record  in  notebook  of  the  date,  method, 
and  time  spent  in  performing  each  detail  of  the  work.  Also 
note  the  time  of  sprouting  after  seeding,  the  number  of  seedling 
trees,  and  the  number  of  buds  successfully  grafted. 


CHAPTER   V 
FRUIT   GROWING 

FRUITS  are  grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 
In  many  regions  where  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
are  especially  suitable,  fruit  growing  has  developed  into  a 
leading  agricultural  industry.  Since  some  fruits  may  be 
grown  successfully  on  nearly  every  farm,  each  farmer 
should  possess  the  requisite  knowledge  and  skill  to  pro- 
duce enough  first-class  fruit  for  the  table. 

Selecting  a  Site.  —  In  all  fruit-growing  regions  and  on 
nearly  all  farms  there  are  certain  sites  best  adapted  to 
fruit  growing.  Most  fruits  demand  a  sloping  site  to  give 
good  soil  and  air  drainage.  Fruit  trees  will  not  thrive  on 
poorly  drained  soil.  A  slope  of  four  to  five  feet  per  hun- 
dred is  generally  sufficient.  Air  drainage  is  as  important 
as  soil  drainage.  Cold  air  is  heavier  than  warm  air  and 
settles  in  the  low  spots ;  hence  such  places  are  more  likely 
to  be  visited  by  the  late  spring  frosts  when  the  trees  are 
in  bloom,  killing  the  blossoms  and  spoiling  the  crop.  Sites 
that  are  too  steep  are  also  objectionable  as  it  is  incon- 
venient to  cultivate,  spray,  and  otherwise  care  for  trees 
on  very  steep  land. 

The  exposure  of  a  site  should  also  be  considered.  Fruits 
growing  on  a  southern  slope  blossom  early,  while  those 
on  a  northern  slope,  which  is  generally  cooler  and  more 
moist,  blossom  later.  In  growing  early  crops  where  there 

240 


PLANNING  THE   FRUIT   GARDEN  241 

is  little  danger  of  late  spring  frosts,  a  southern  slope  is 
to  be  preferred,  but  in  growing  late  varieties  of  fruits  or 
those  that  require  coolness  and  moisture,  a  northern  exposure 
should  be  selected.  Where  the  prevailing  winds  are  from 
the  west  an  eastern  exposure  is  desirable,  especially  for  such 
fruits  as  apples  that  drop  their  crop  during  severe  wind 
storms.  If  the  site  is  adjacent  to  a  large  body  of  water, 
the  moderating  influence  would  be  most  marked  on  the 
slope  toward  the  water.  There  is  no  best  exposure.  Each 
grower  should  select  a  site  that  meets  the  requirements 
of  the  fruit  he  intends  to  grow  under  his  local  conditions. 

The  soil  is  also  an  important  consideration  in  selecting 
a  site.  The  essentials  of  an  ideal  soil  for  fruit  production 
are  good  drainage,  good  texture,  and  a  sufficient  amount  of 
plant  food.  Certain  soils  are  better  adapted  to  certain 
kinds  of  fruits  than  others.  Apples  prefer  a  medium  clay 
loam  while  pears  do  especially  well  on  a  heavy  clay  loam ; 
peaches  and  most  other  stone  fruits,  except  plums,  prefer 
a  lighter  soil ;  while  the  quince  and  most  of  the  bush  fruits 
do  better  on  a  medium  heavy,  cool,  moist  loam.  Straw- 
berries and  grapes  thrive  best  on  a  rather  light  soil.  Fruits 
come  into  bearing  earlier  on  light  soils,  but  the  trees  are 
apt  to  be  short-lived.  On  heavier  soils,  the  trees  usually 
grow  larger  and  live  longer.  In  the  home  fruit  garden, 
however,  almost  any  kind  of  fruit  can  be  grown  by  observ- 
ing good  culture  and  tillage  practices. 

Planning  the  Fruit  Garden.  —  In  planning  the  fruit 
garden,  it  is  advisable  to  draw  a  plan  to  a  definite  scale 
showing  the  relative  arrangement  of  the  fruits,  the  number 
of  each  to  be  grown,  and  the  distance  apart  that  they  are 
to  be  planted.  This  not  only  serves  as  a  guide  at  planting 
time,  but  also  furnishes  a  permanent  record  of  the  position 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. l6 


242  FRUIT   GROWING 

and  variety  of  each  tree  and  permits  the  placing  of  the 
various  fruits  so  as  to  secure  the  greatest  economy  of  space. 

For  general  market  purposes,  it  is  best  to  select  few  kinds 
with  a  sufficient  number  of  each  kind  to  market  success- 
fully, while  in  growing  fruit  for  home  use  only  a  small 
number  of  each  is  required. 

In  arranging  fruits  in  a  garden,  it  is  best  to  plant  each 
kind  by  itself.  When  tree  fruits  are  interplanted  with 
small  fruits,  the  cost  of  caring  for  them  is  increased.  Pear 
trees  are  sometimes  planted  between  apple  trees,  but  it  is 
often  desirable  to  cultivate  the  apples  when  it  may  be 
inadvisable  to  cultivate  the  pears.  Interplanting  is  often 
practiced  in  order  to  get  quick  returns  from  the  orchard. 
Strawberries  are  often  interplanted  between  tree  fruits; 
thus  the  land  produces  returns  the  second  year.  Farm 
crops  are  often  grown  between  the  rows.  Under  such 
conditions,  it  is  essential  to  provide  a  sufficient  amount  of 
fertilizer  for  both  crops,  otherwise  this  practice  will  stunt 
the  trees.  When  intercropping  is  practiced,  it  is  best  to 
use  some  cultivated  crop  that  the  soil  moisture  may  be 
preserved.  Wheat,  oats,  and  any  of  the  grass  crops  are 
to  be  avoided. 

Square  System.  — •  There  are  various  systems  of  arrang- 
ing trees  in  the  orchard.  The  square  system  is  the  most 
common.  In  this  the  trees  are  planted  in  rows  an  equal 
distance  apart  each  way  and  so  placed  as  to  be  in  align- 
ment with  the  trees  of  the  adjoining  rows.  This  is  the 
easiest  system  to  lay  out,  and  is  a  very  convenient  one  to 
care  for.  Since  two  trees  diagonally  across  from  each 
other  in  a  square  are  a  greater  distance  apart  than  the 
ones  on  the  same  side  of  the  square,  it  is  evident  that 
this  system  does  not  utilize  space  economically  and  does 


DISTANCES  BETWEEN  TREES  243 

not  permit  the  planting  of  as  many  trees  per  acre  as  other 
systems. 

Alternate  System.  —  In  this  system,  the  first  row  of 
trees  is  planted  as  in  the  square  system,  but  the  trees 
of  the  adjacent  row  alternate  with  those  of  the  first 
row.  By  this  system,  although  the  trees  are  not  equal 
distances  apart,  the  space  is  more  evenly  divided,  but  the 
trees  do  not  line  up  both  ways  as  in  the  square  system. 

The  Hexagonal  or  Triangular  System  permits  the  plant- 
ing of  more  trees  per  acre  than  the  other  systems  and 


Fig.  131.  —  Square,  alternate,  and  hexagonal  planting  plans  for  orchards. 

equalizes  the  space  to  the  best  advantage.     In  this  system 
each  tree  occupies  a  corner  of  an  equilateral  triangle. 

Distances  between  Trees. — The  distances  apart  that 
fruits  should  be  planted  depend  upon  the  kind,  variety, 
soil,  locality,  and  system  of  culture  to  be  followed.  Apple 
trees  grow  larger  than  peach .  trees  and  hence  must  be 
given  more  space,  if  large,  spreading,  well-formed  trees 
are  desired.  There  is  also  often  a  great  difference  in  the 
growing  habits  of  different  varieties  of  the  same  kind  of 
fruit,  as  may  be  seen  in  comparing  the  Baldwin  apple  tree 
with  the  Wagener.  The  former  develops  to  a  large  size, 
while  the  latter  is  a  small-growing  variety.  Upon  light 


244  FRUIT   GROWING 

soil,  trees  seldom  grow  so  large  as  upon  strong  soil,  hence 
in  some  sections  the  same  varieties  are  more  vigorous 
in  growing  than  in  others.  The  systems  of  pruning,  train- 
ing, fertilizing,  and  cultivating  that  are  to  be  practiced  all 
influence  the  distance  of  planting. 

The  usual  distances  apart  for  planting  fruits  are  as 
follows : 

Apples 25  to  40  feet  each  way 

Pears 20  to  30  feet  each  way 

Plums 1 6  to  25  feet  each  way 

Peaches 1 6  to  25  feet  each  way 

Cherries,  sour       1 6  to  25  feet  each  way 

Apricots 1 6  to  20  feet  each  way 

Quinces 8  to  14  feet  each  way 

Grapes 8  to  1 2  feet  each  way 

Currants 4X6  feet 

Gooseberries 4X5  feet 

Raspberries,  black    ....  3X6  feet 

Raspberries,  red 3X5  feet 

Blackberries 4X7  to  6X8  feet 

Strawberries i£  X  3  or  4  feet 

Selecting  Varieties.  —  Since  much  of  the  fruit  grower's 
success  depends  upon  the  quality  and  quantity  of  fruit 
he  produces,  his  most  important  consideration  is  that  of 
varieties.  The  most  common  mistake  made  in  planting 
commercial  orchards  is  that  of  selecting  too  many  varie- 
ties. An  orchard  consisting  of  many  varieties  proves  of 
little  commercial  value  as  there  is  not  enough  of  any  one 
kind  to  market  with  profit. 

Many  growers  make  the  mistake  of  planting  varieties 
not  adapted  to  the  locality.  Some  of  our  best  varieties 
of  apples  are  grown  successfully  only  in  certain  localities. 


SELECTING   VARIETIES 


245 


while  others  are  able  to  adapt  themselves  to  a  wide  range 
of  conditions.  The  Baldwin  apple,  the  Bartlett  pear,  the 
Lombard  plum,  and  the  Elberta  peach  are  cosmopolitan 
varieties;  while  the  Spitzenburg  apple,  the  Kalamazoo 
peach,  the  Bosc  pear,  and  the  Satsuma  plum  are  examples 
of  the  other  type.  One  of  the  best  ways  of  learning  the 


Fig.  132.  —  Heeling- in  young  trees. 

varieties  adapted  to  a  particular  region  is  to  visit  neigh- 
boring orchards  during  the  harvest  season,  and  note  the 
varieties  producing  the  best  crops. 

New  varieties  are  not  desirable  in  commercial  orchards. 
Standard  varieties  are  well  known  and  need  little  adver- 
tising. The  public  is  aware  of  their  merits.  Novelties 
should  be  planted  only  to  test  their  value,  not  as  a  com- 
mercial venture. 


246  FRUIT   GROWING 

In  selecting  varieties  for  the  home  fruit  garden,  quality 
is  the  most  desirable  characteristic.  The  commercial 
fruit  grower  must  carefully  consider  hardiness,  produc- 
tiveness, and  shipping  qualities.  These  are  not  so  im- 
portant to  the  home  fruit  grower. 

Heeling-in.  —  When  the  trees  arrive  from  the  nursery, 
they  should  be  unpacked  as  soon  as  possible  and  heeled-in. 
This  consists  in  selecting  a  well-drained  spot  along  the 
north  side  of  a  building,  fence,  or  woods,  and  digging  a 
trench  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  roots  of  the  trees 
without  crowding.  The  trees  are  then  set  in  this  trench, 
facing  the  north  and  slanting  at  an  angle  of  about  forty- 
five  degrees.  The  soil  is  then  packed  firmly  about  the 
roots  to  keep  them  in  a  moist  condition.  At  no  time 
should  the  roots  be  exposed  to  the  sun  or  drying  winds. 
It  is  essential  at  planting  time  to  keep  them  covered  with 
soil,  moist  burlap,  or  in  water  until  ready  for  use. 

The  Time  for  Planting.  --  The  spring  is  usually  the  best 
time  to  plant  an  orchard.  In  some  localities,  fall  planting 
is  also  successful,  but  if  a  severe  winter  follows,  the  trees 
are  liable  to  injury  from  freezing.  If  spring  planting  is 
practiced,  it  is  desirable  to  get  the  trees  set  as  early  as  the 
ground  can  be  worked.  The  cool  moist  spring  days  per- 
mit the  tree  to  become  established  before  the  warm  dry 
summer  sets  in. 

Preparation  of  Soil. --The  method  of  preparing  the 
soil  depends  upon  its  nature,  texture,  and  fertility.  If  the 
land  is  in  sod  it  is  a  good  plan  to  plant  it  with  some  culti- 
vated crop  for  a  season  or  two  before  setting  the  trees. 
This  brings  the  soil  into  a  uniform  and  mellow  condition. 
If  the  soil  is  shallow  or  contains  a  stiff  hard  pan  near  the 
surface,  this  should  be  loosened  up  as  deeply  as  possible 


PLANTING   THE  TREES  247 

with  the  plow.  If  the  soil  is  light  and  poor,  a  heavy  coat- 
ing of  manure  before  plowing  will  prove  very  beneficial. 
Land  for  orchard  planting  should  be  prepared  deeply  and 
thoroughly,  as  it  is  much  more  difficult  and  expensive  to 
improve  a  soil  after  the  trees  are  set. 

Laying  out  the  Orchard.  —  For  the  small  orchard,  the 
trees  may  be  located  by  stretching  a  line  or  wire  across 
the  field  where  the  first  row  is  to  be  planted  and  marking 
off  proper  distances  on  the  wire  with  white  string  or  cloth. 
After  the  stakes  have  been  set  at  these  points  for  the  first 
row,  the  line  is  moved  to  the  next  and  the  process  continued. 

If  the  area  is  large,  it  is  well  to  establish  a  base  line  along 
one  side  of  the  orchard  with  stakes  marking  the  position 
of  the  rows.  Another  line  should  be  run  along  an  adjacent 
side  at  right  angles  to  this  base  line  and  stakes  set  along  it 
at  the  distance  of  the  trees  in  the  rows.  If  similar  lines 
are  marked  off  along  the  other  two  sides  of  the  orchard, 
the  correct  location  of  any  tree  may  be  determined  by 
sighting. 

Planting  the  Trees.  —  This  is  generally  done  with  the  aid 
of  a  planting  board.  This  board  should  be  four  or  five 

II ffl  fnB nj 

Fig.  133.  —  A  planting  board. 

feet  long,  about  three  inches  wide,  and  a  half  inch  thick. 
A  square  notch  is  cut  out  of  the  center  and  at  each  end 
along  one  side  of  the  board.  The  board  is  so  placed  that 
the  stake  marking  the  position  of  the  tree  fits  into  the 
center  notch  and  a  stake  is  driven  in  each  notch  at  the  ends. 
The  center  stake  is  then  pulled  up  and  the  board,  after 
the  hole  is  dug,  is  replaced  against  the  two  outside  stakes. 


248 


FRUIT   GROWING 


The  tree  is  then  set  in  such  a  manner  that  its  trunk  comes 
through  the  center  notch  in  perfect  alignment. 

In  planting  large  orchards,  furrowing  along  the  tree  rows 
is  often  practiced.  The  holes  are  cleaned  out  by  hand. 
As  a  rule  the  harder  the  soil,  the  larger  the  holes  should 
be  dug.  When  the  soil  has  been  well  prepared,  the  hole 
need  only  be  large  enough  to  receive  all  the  roots  of  the 
tree  without  twisting  or  crowding.  If  the  top  soil  is  shallow 

and  the  subsoil  hard, 
the  bottom  of  the 
hole  should  be 
loosened.  A  very 
objectionable  prac- 
tice is  that  of  throw- 
ing coarse  or  fresh 
manure  into  the 
bottom  of  the  hole. 
While  these  materi- 
als are  decomposing, 
they  absorb  mois- 
ture and  cause  heat- 
ing which  is  injuri- 
ous to  the  roots  of 
the  trees.  It  is  a 
better  practice  to 
separate  the  rich  surface  soil  from  the  subsoil  when  digging 
the  hole  and  to  use  only  the  best  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the 
hole,  packing  it  firmly  about  the  roots,  being  careful  that 
no  air  spaces  are  left,  especially  beneath  the  crown. 

When  the  young  tree  is  dug  from  the  nursery,  much  of 
the  root  system  is  removed,  so  that  at  the  time  of  planting 
the  roots  will  be  found  with  broken  and  ragged  ends. 


"I 


Fig.  134.  —  Planting  young  orchard  trees.     Note  how 
the  hands  are  used  in  packing  soil  around  the  roots. 


CARE   OF   TREES  249 

These  should  be  trimmed  off  with  a  sharp  knife,  making 
a  clean  cut  that  will  heal  readily.  In  planting,  one  man 
should  hold  the  tree  with  one  hand  and  pack  the  soil  well 
about  the  roots  with  the  other,  using  his  fingers  for  pushing 
the  soil  under  the  crown  and  between  the  roots  and  finally 
tramping  it  down  firmly  with  his  heels ;  while  another 
shovels  the  soil  into  the  hole.  If  the  soil  is  not  too  wet, 
there  is  little  danger  of  packing  it  too  firmly.  It  is  a 
common  mistake  to  leave  the  soil  too  loose  about  the  roots. 
The  poorer  soil  may  be  finally  used  on  top,  the  upper  sur- 
face of  which  should  be  left  loose  to  prevent  the  loss  of 
soil  moisture.  If  it  is  desirable  to  use  fresh  or  strawy 
manure,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  mulch  the  top  of  the  soil 
with  it,  but  well-decomposed  manure  may  be  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  soil  before  planting.  If  the  planting  is 
done  in  the  fall,  the  soil  should  be  banked  up  for  at 
least  a  foot  around  the  tree  to  prevent  the  wind  from 
loosening  it  during  the  winter,  and  also  to  provide  surface 
drainage  and  protection  from  mice.  Care  and  attention 
in  the  first  planting  of  the  tree  is  more  economical  than 
resetting. 

Care  of  Trees  the  First  Season.  —  The  season  directly 
after  planting  is  the  most  critical  period  in  the  life  of  a  tree. 
Whatever  system  of  orchard  management  is  finally  adopted, 
everything  should  be  done  the  first  season  to  enable  the 
trees  to  make  a  strong  vigorous  growth.  If  tillage  is 
practiced,  it  should  be  done  thoroughly  and  often,  as  it 
not  only  conserves  soil  moisture,  but  accelerates  the  chemi- 
cal action  of  the  soil,  making  plant  food  more  available. 
If  mulching  is  practiced,  a  heavy  application  of  straw  or 
manure  should  be  given,  spreading  it  out  a  good  distance 
from  the  trees.  Cultivation  or  mulching  with  manure  or 


250  FRUIT   GROWING 

straw  will  also  kill  all  weeds  which  might  in  their  growth 
absorb  much  soil  moisture  and  plant  food. 

Although  too  much  growth  can  hardly  take  place  the 
first  season,  it  is  well  to  cease  cultivation  about  the  first  of 
August  so  that  the  trees  may  have  an  opportunity  to  mature 
their  new  wood  and  harden  it  before  winter.  Generally  a 
cover  crop  is  sown  at  this  time,  which  absorbs  much  of  the 
plant  food  that  might  otherwise  wash  away  or  leach  through 
the  soil.  The  trees  should  be  carefully  watched  for  climb- 
ing cut  worms,  San  Jose  scale,  leaf  curl,  and  webworms. 
If  all  insects  and  diseases  are  checked  as  soon  as  they 
appear,  little  injury  will  result,  but  carelessness  in  these 
matters  may  prove  fatal  to  young  trees. 

In  addition  to  cultivation,  it  is  frequently  advisable  to 
feed  the  trees  after  planting  to  enable  them  to  gain  a  good 
start.  Of  all  the  fertilizers  that  are  used  for  this  purpose, 
well-decomposed  stable  manure  is  the  best  general  fertilizer, 
and  should  be  applied  early  enough  so  that  the  trees  may 
receive  the  benefit  of  it  during  their  early  spring  growth. 
Nitrate  of  soda  is  sometimes  used  to  stimulate  growth. 
This  fertilizer  should  not  come  in  direct  contact  with  the 
roots.  Being  very  soluble,  it  is  advisable  to  make  two  or 
three  light  applications  rather  than  one  heavy  one.  As 
a  source  of  potash,  unleached  hardwood  ashes  or  muriate 
of  potash  may  be  used.  Some  forms  of  phosphate,  as 
acid  phosphate,  may  also  prove  beneficial. 

EXERCISES 

1.  How   many   acres  of  your  farm   are  adapted  to  fruit 
growing  ? 

2.  Describe  a  near-by  site  that  would  be  ideal  for  an  orchard. 


HOME  PROJECTS  251 

3.  Name  the  best  winter  apple  to  grow  in  your  locality ;  name 
the  best  summer  and  fall  varieties  for  your  locality. 

4.  With  Baldwin  apples  planted  36  feet  apart  each  way, 
how  many  trees  will  be  required  to  plant  an  eight-acre  field  by 
the  square  system  with  the  side  and  end  rows  18  feet  from  the 
borders  of  the  field  ?     How  many  trees  will  be  required  to  plant 
this  area  by  the  hexagonal  system  ? 

5.  What  is  the  reason  for  packing  the  soil  firmly  about  the 
roots  when  planting  trees? 

(To  the  Teacher:  The  class  may  be  divided  into  squads  of 
three  to  five  students,  and  each  squad  assigned  a  piece  of  land 
on  which  to  plan,  stake,  and  plant  out  an  orchard  of  at  least  ten 
trees.  One-year-old  seedling  peaches  may  be  grown  or  pur- 
chased very  cheaply  for  this  work.  Each  squad  should  make 
its  own  planting  board.) 


HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Set  out  an  orchard  of  at  least  ten  trees  on  the  system  most 
desirable  for  your  conditions.     When  planting  the  trees,  fer- 
tilize them  by  mixing  the  soil  with  well-rotted  manure  or  by 
applying  fresh  manure  on  top  as  a  mulch. 

2.  Make  an  orchard   survey  of    the  tree  fruits  within  a 
radius  of  one  mile  of  your  home.      Tabulate  your  facts  as 
follows : 

(a)  Total  number  of  orchards. 

(b)  Total  number  of  trees. 

(c)  Total  number  of  each  kind  of  fruit  trees. 

(d)  Total   number  with  good  soil   drainage.     Average  con- 
dition of  trees. 

(e)  Total  number  with  poor  soil  drainage.     Average  condi- 
tion of  trees. 

(/)  Total  number  with   good  air  drainage.     Average  con- 
dition of  trees. 


252  FRUIT   GROWING 

(g)  Total  number  with  poor  air  drainage.  Average  condi- 
tion of  trees. 

(h)  Number  of  each  kind  with  northern  exposure.  Average 
condition  of  trees. 

(i)  Number  of  each  kind  with  southern  exposure.  Average 
condition  of  trees. 

(j)  Number  of  each  kind  with  eastern  exposure.  Average 
condition  of  trees. 

(&)  Number  of  each  kind  with  western  exposure.  Average 
condition  of  trees. 

(/)  Number  of  each  kind  on  sandy  soil.  Average  condition 
of  trees. 

(m)  Number  of  each  kind  on  sandy  loam.  Average  condi- 
tion of  trees. 

(n)  Number  of  each  kind  on  clay  loam.  Average  condition 
of  trees. 

(0)  Number  of  each  kind  on  stiff  clay.  Average  condition 
of  trees. 


CHAPTER   VI 
ORCHARD   MANAGEMENT 

FRUIT  trees  will  not  produce  profitable  crops  when  left 
alone  to  struggle  for  their  existence.  Good  fruits  are 
produced  only  when  the  trees  are  supplied  with  an  abun- 
dance of  food  and  moisture. 

Cultivation.  —  Cultivation  aerates  the  soil,  improves  its 
texture,  and  makes  plant  food  available.  It  also  deepens 
the  top  soil,  and  increases  the  feeding  area  of  the  roots.  The 
practice  of  plowing  the  soil  in  the  spring  and  harrowing  it 
frequently  during  the  growing  season  is  followed  by  many 
successful  growers.  This  is  known  as  the  soil-mulch  sys- 
tem. By  stirring  the  soil  and  keeping  the  upper  surface 
loose  and  friable,  soil  moisture  is  maintained  and  the 
growth  of  weeds  prevented.  As  this  is  the  cheapest  method 
of  maintaining  soil  moisture  and  of  feeding  the  trees  it  is 
usually  the  most  desirable  practice.  As  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  land  can  be  worked  a  cover  crop  should  be  turned 
under  and  the  soil  smoothed  down  with  a  harrow.  Every 
week  or  ten  days,  and  after  every  heavy  rain,  the  land  is 
again  harrowed  to  keep  the  top  soil  fine  and  loose.  This 
is  continued  until  late  summer,  when  a  cover  crop  is  sown 
and  left  until  the  following  spring. 

Some  growers  find  it  better  to  practice  the  sod-mulch 
system.  Where  the  land  is  unusually  fertile  and  moist, 
good  fruit  may  be  grown  by  this  system.  On  farms  where 
the  fruit  crop  is  not  the  principal  money  crop  or  where  the 
land  slopes  so  that  cultivation  cannot  be  practiced  without 

253 


254 


ORCHARD   MANAGEMENT 


MAINTAINING   FERTILITY  255 

severe  washing,  this  system  is  advisable.  Here  the  grass 
is  cut  three  or  four  times  a  year,  and  left  on  the  ground  or 
raked  under  the  outer  branches  of  the  trees.  It  thus 
serves  as  a  mulch  to  prevent  the  loss  of  soil  moisture.  It 
is  frequently  necessary,  however,  to  apply  additional 
straw  or  coarse  manure.  Since  the  plant  food  on  this 
system  is  not  liberated  so  rapidly  in  the  soil,  it  generally 
becomes  necessary  to  fertilize  more  heavily  than  where  the 
soil-mulch  system  is  practiced.  In  planting  trees,  the  sod 
should  be  turned  under  for  a  considerable  distance  around 
the  trees  and  a  heavy  coating  of  straw  applied  until  they 
have  grown  sufficiently  to  shade  the  ground  beneath. 

Maintaining  Fertility.  —  Maintaining  fertility  is  one  of 
the  serious  problems  that  confront  the  fruit  grower.  The 
general  farmer  keeps  stock  enough  on  the  farm  to  supply 
fertilizer  for  his  land,  but  the  fruit  grower  without  live 
stock  must  find  some  other  method  of  maintaining  the 
fertility  of  his  fields.  Unlike  the  annual  crops  of  the 
farmer,  a  fruit  tree  grows  for  years  on  the  same  site,  draw- 
ing the  same  kind  of  plant  food  from  the  soil. 

The  purchase  of  plant  food  in  the  form  of  commercial 
fertilizers  is  expensive.  The  cheapest  source  of  fertilizer 
for  the  fruit  gardener  is  the  soil  itself,  but  often  this  plant 
food  is  in  an  unavailable  form.  Tillage  lets  in  the  air  and 
promotes  the  activity  of  the  soil.  It  is  the  cheapest  way 
of  making  plant  food  available. 

It  is  not  always  sufficient  to  improve  the  fertility  of  an 
orchard  by  tillage  alone,  but  it  will  help  much  in  reducing 
the  amount  of  fertilizer  that  need  be  furnished.  When 
an  orchard  has  been  in  sod  for  a  number  of  years,  its  growth 
may  be  stimulated  by  breaking  up  the  sod  and  thus  liberat- 
ing plant  food. 


256  ORCHARD   MANAGEMENT 

Cover  Crops.  —  Most  trees  produce  their  new  growth 
from  the  time  the  buds  open  in  the  spring  until  midsummer. 
It  is  therefore  essential  that  the  plant  food  be  available 
at  this  time.  Plowing,  harrowing,  or  disking  the  soil  early 
in  the  spring  and  keeping  it  well  cultivated  until  midsum- 
mer promotes  this  condition.  To  cease  cultivation  about 
midsummer  tends  to  stop  the  growth  of  wood  and  causes 
it  to  ripen  and  harden  for  winter.  The  practice  of  sowing 
some  crop  on  the  soil  about  midsummer  to  be  later  turned 
under  is  called  "  cover  cropping." 

Functions  of  Cover  Crops.  --  The  relation  of  cover  crops 
to  tree  growth  has  already  been  explained.  Their  relation 
to  soil  fertility  is  also  important.  A  soil  that  is  kept  con- 
stantly cultivated  soon  loses  its  humus  and  consequently 
its  mellowness  and  friability.  To  maintain  the  texture  of 
the  soil,  it  is  necessary  to  have  plants  decaying  in  it  at  all 
times.  When  orchards  are  cultivated,  this  annual  loss  of 
plant  fiber  to  the  soil  must  be  replaced.  The  practice  of 
cover  cropping  generally  proves  to  be  the  most  economical 
method.  Under  this  system  the  soil  grows  its  own  crops, 
produces  its  own  humus,  and  thus  maintains  its  own  tex- 
ture. When  plants  are  plowed  under  in  the  spring,  they 
soon  decay  and  the  plant  food  that  they  contain  is  liberated 
and  becomes  available  at  a  time  when  the  trees  most  need 
this  food. 

Light  sandy  soils  and  many  of  the  clay  soils  are  generally 
low  in  nitrogen.  Cover  crops  may  be  used  to  add  nitrogen 
to  the  soil.  When  a  soil  is  low  in  nitrogen,  those  plants 
that  have  the  power  of  taking  nitrogen  from  the  air 
should  be  sown.  For  this  purpose  clovers,  vetches,  peas, 
and  beans  are  sown. 

Cover  crops  prevent  weed  growth,  and  on  sandy  soils 


COVER   CROPS  257 

absorb  plant  food  that  might  otherwise  leach  away.  These 
food  elements  are  stored  in  the  form  of  plant  tissues  during 
the  fall  and  winter  and  are  returned  to  the  trees  in  the 
spring  after  decay  begins. 

In  orchards  upon  sloping  sites,  cover  crops  prevent 
washing.  They  also  hold  the  leaves  and  snow,  and  pro- 
duce a  matting  over  the  soil  that  is  often  extremely 
valuable  in  preventing  deep  freezing  and  winter  injury. 

Choice  of  Cover  Crops.  —  In  some  orchards  it  is  desirable 
to  disk  the  land  in  the  spring,  hence  a  cover  crop  should  be 


Fig.   136.  —  Sweet  clover  as  a  cover  crop  in  a  cherry  orchard. 

used  that  can  be  easily  worked  into  the  soil  at  that  time. 
Under  these  conditions,  oats,  buckwheat,  peas,  barley, 
or  turnips  are  often  used. 

When  the  trees  are  producing  a  weak  growth,  some 
legume  as  winter  vetch,  crimson  clover,  mammoth  clover, 
peas,  or  soy  beans  should  be  sown.  But  when  the  trees 
are  growing  too  rapidly  or  making  too  much  wood  at  the 
expense  of  fruit  production,  these  plants  should  not  be  used. 
Rye,  oats,  or  some  other  non-legume  should  be  grown. 

M.    AND   H.    PLANT   PROD. —  I/ 


258 


ORCHARD    MANAGEMENT 


The  locality  of  the  orchard  has  much  to  do  with  the  kind 
of  cover  crop  grown.  Crops  adapted  to  special  conditions 
of  soil  should  also  be  selected.  Vetches  thrive  best  upon 
sandy  lands  while  clovers  do  well  on  a  clay  soil. 

Certain  crops  are  frequently  combined  as  cover  crops. 
Oats  and  Canada  peas,  rye  and  winter  vetch,  buckwheat 
and  clover,  and  turnips  and  clover  are  desirable  combina- 
tions. 

An  ideal  plant  for  a  cover  crop  is  one  that  starts  to  grow 
quickly  and  with  which  it  is  not  difficult  to  secure  a  uni- 
form stand.  It  must  produce  a  fair  amount  of  growth  in 
late  summer  and  be  able  to  withstand  tramping  during 
the  picking  season.  If  the  plant  is  one  that  lives  through 
the  winter,  it  must  start  to  grow  early  in  the  spring. 

QUANTITIES   OF   COVER  CROP   SEED   TO   SOW   PER  ACRE 


LEGUMES 


NON-LEGUMES 


Winter  vetch 25  Ib. 

Spring  vetch 90  Ib. 

Mammoth  clover      .     .     .     .  20  Ib. 

Crimson  clover 20  Ib. 

Sweet  clover 15  Ib. 

Cowpeas 90  Ib. 

Velvet  beans 25  Ib. 

Soy  beans 90  Ib. 


Rye 48  Ib. 

Oats 2  bu. 

Buckwheat 2  bu. 

Turnips 2  Ib. 


Plowing  under  Cover  Crops.  —  Cover  crops  should  be 
turned  under  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  can  be  worked. 
Then  the  plant  tissues  are  soft  and  decay  readily  after 
being  turned  under.  If  the  cover  crop  is  allowed  to  reach 
large  size  before  plowing  much  soil  moisture  is  lost  by 
transpiration  from  the  growing  plants. 


FERTILIZERS  259 

Barnyard  Manure.  -  Where  a  sufficient  amount  of 
barnyard  manure  is  obtainable  at  a  reasonable  price,  it 
may  be  profitably  utilized  in  the  orchard.  Barnyard 
manure  is  a  complete  fertilizer  and  acts  in  two  ways,  — 
directly  by  adding  plant  food,  and  indirectly  by  adding 
humus  to  the  soil.  Rank-growing  trees  should  not  be 
fertilized  with  barnyard  manure,  but  where  the  trees  are 
weak  and  the  foliage  is  yellow,  it  proves  most  beneficial. 
It  may  be  applied  to  the  orchard  at  almost  any  season  of 
the  year,  but  most  advantageously  in  early  spring,  when 
there  will  be  less  waste  by  leaching  and  washing.  Its 
effect  upon  orchard  trees  is  more  lasting  than  that  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  A  good  dressing  of  it  once  every  two 
or  three  years  is  sufficient. 

Commercial  Fertilizers.  -  The  function  of  commercial 
fertilizers  is  to  supply  the  kinds  of  plant  food  that  are  de- 
ficient in  the  soil  and  that  are  necessary  for  producing 
profitable  crops.  Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash 
are  called  the  essential  fertilizers  because  they  are  the  ones 
that  are  likely  to  be  present  in  but  limited  amounts  in  the 
soil. 

Nitrogenous  fertilizers  promote  a  vigorous  growth  of 
both  twigs  and  foliage.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  used  when  it 
is  desirable  to  apply  a  fertilizer  whose  nitrogen  is  quickly 
available.  It  should  be  applied  only  when  the  trees  can 
take  it  up  immediately,  as  it  is  very  soluble  in  water  and 
hence  apt  to  leach  away.  Sulphate  of  ammonia  has  much 
the  same  value  and  effect  as  nitrate  of  soda.  Cottonseed 
meal,  dried  blood,  tankage,  and  fish  scrap  are  used  more  in 
producing  crops  that  have  a  long  growing  season,  since  the 
nitrogen  which  they  contain  is  more  slowly  available. 

Phosphoric    acid    promotes    fruit    production    and    the 


260  ORCHARD   MANAGEMENT 

development  of  a  matured  hardy  growth.  Bones  and 
phosphate  rocks  are  the  chief  sources  of  this  element. 
When  these  are  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  the  product 
is  called  acid  phosphate. 

Potash  induces  the  formation  of  a  well-matured  growth 
and  high-colored  fruit.  Muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of 
potash,  and  wood  ashes  are  the  most  common  sources  of 
this  fertilizer. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  generally  applied  to  the 
orchard  with  a  fertilizer  drill  or  by  broadcasting  and  har- 
rowing them  into  the  soil.  This  should  be  done  in  the 
spring  soon  after  the  trees  have  started  their  growth.  It 
is  a  mistake  to  fertilize  a  fruit  tree  only  near  the  base  of  the 
trunk.  The  feeding  roots  of  a  bearing  tree  are  nearly  all 
under  the  outer  branches  and  between  the  rows.  This  is 
the  place  where  the  fertilizer  should  be  applied. 

In  maintaining  the  fertility  of  an  orchard,  it  is  seldom 
advisable  to  depend  entirely  upon  commercial  fertilizers. 
They  should  be  used  not  to  replace  tillage,  green  manures, 
or  barnyard  manures,  but  rather  to  supplement  them.  It 
is  only  on  soil  of  good  texture  supplied  with  plenty  of 
humus  that  the  best  results  with  commercial  fertilizers  can 
be  obtained. 

Pruning.  —  The  productiveness  of  an  orchard  depends 
largely  upon  the  skill  and  attention  that  is  given  to  pruning. 
Each  tree  in  an  orchard  has  only  as  much  top  growth  as 
its  roots  can  support.  The  fruit  grower  desires  a  vigorous 
top  that  will  produce  the  largest  and  best  fruit.  Pruning 
induces  this  vigor  by  concentrating  the  growth  into  less 
wood.  Many  farmers  judge  the  thoroughness  of  their 
work  by  the  size  of  the  pile  of  prunings  they  have  under 
their  trees.  Severe  pruning  induces  the  growth  of  water 


PRUNING 


261 


sprouts.  This  is  because  the  tree  endeavors  to  restore  the 
natural  balance  existing  between  the  top  and  the  root 
system.  It  takes  a  tree  two  or  three  years  after  a  severe 
pruning  to  become  productive  again.  The  first  important 
rule  of  pruning  is  to  prune 
regularly  and  lightly. 

Pruning  has  two  im- 
portant functions :  (i)  to 
modify  the  vigor  and 
fruitfulness  of  the  tree, 
and  (2)  to  secure  a  tree 
of  such  form  as  to  produce 
fruit  most  economically. 
The  latter  function  is  of 
great  importance.  Dur- 
ing the  earlier  years 
pruning  consists  largely 
in  shaping  the  tree  so 
that  the  spraying,  thin- 
ning, and  harvesting  may 
be  most  easily  performed. 

The  height  from  the 
ground  at  which  the 
branching  should  begin 
varies  with  the  different  Fig.  137. 
kinds  of  fruits  and  with 
the  various  localities  in  which  they  are  grown.  In  some 
sections,  peaches  are  pruned  so  that  their  heads  are 
formed  but  a  very  short  distance  from  the  ground,  while 
in  other  places  they  are  started  a  foot  and  a  half  to  two  and 
a  half  feet  from  the  ground.  In  general,  apples  are  so 
pruned  that  their  heads  are  formed  eighteen  inches  to  three 


Pear  tree  after  planting.    Before 
and  after  pruning. 


262 


ORCHARD   MANAGEMENT 


and  a  half  feet  from    the    ground.     In    sections    of    the 
country  where  the  trees  are  subject  to  sun  scald,  it  is  the 

practice  to  start  the  heads 
lower,  so  that  the  tops 
may  shade  the  trunks. 
Pruning,  spraying,  and 
harvesting  may  all  be 
performed  economically 
upon  low-headed  trees. 

Many  trees  have  their 
heads  formed  -when  re- 
ceived from  the  nursery. 
In  such  cases,  four  or  five 
of  the  strongest  branches 
should  be  selected  to  form 
the  future  framework  of 
the  tree.  These  should  be 
distributed  over  at  least 
fifteen  inches  of  the  trunk  and  extend  in  all  directions. 
No  two  of  them  should  be  on  opposite  sides,  as  this  pro- 
duces a  crotch  which  will  easily  split  when  heavily  loaded 
with  fruit.  All  other  branches  should  be  removed  and 
the  main  limbs  cut  back  a  third  to  a  half  their  length. 
At  the  end  of  the  second  season's  growth,  each  of  these 
scaffold  limbs  will  have  produced  two  or  more  lateral 
branches.  These  in  turn  should  be  carefully  selected  and 
headed  back  in  order  to  produce  a  top  with  evenly  dis- 
tributed branches.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  during 
the  first  three  years,  the  weaker  portions  of  the  tree  must 
be  filled  out.  After  this  time  there  will  be  little  pruning 
to  do  until  the  tree  comes  into  bearing,  except  to  cut  out 
branches  growing  in  the  wrong  direction. 


Fig.  138.  —  A  bad  crotch,  which  will  easily  split. 


PRUNING 


263 


In  pruning  bearing  trees,  the  object  is  to  produce  vigor 
and  fruitfulness.  All  dead  branches  should  be  removed 
and  others  thinned  where  crowded,  as  high-colored  fruit 
cannot  be  produced  without  sunlight.  A  good  circulation 
of  air  through  the  tree  is  desirable  in  the  production  of 
clean,  healthy  fruit.  All  branches  of  a  tree  should  grow 
outward  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  When  they  cross  and 
interlace  they  steal  the  space  allotted  to  each  other,  and 
as  they  enlarge  they  rub  and  chafe  each  other. 

One  should  endeavor  to  keep  the  tops  of  the  trees  from 
growing  too  high,  so  that  the  fruit  may%be  sprayed  and 
harvested  without  difficulty.  Hence,  in  pruning  bearing 
trees,  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  cut  back  the  tops  a  short 
distance  and  also  to  open  up  the  center  of  the  tree  to  let 


Fig-  139-  —  An  apple  tree  before  pruning.      Fig.  140.  —  The  same  tree  after  pruning. 

in  the  light  and  air.     Severe  pruning  in  this  manner,  how- 
ever, will  frequently  cause  serious  damage  from  sun  scald. 

Although  trees  may  be  pruned  at  almost  any  season  of 
the  year  except  when  the  sap  is  flowing,  early  spring  is 
usually  the  best  time.  Pruning  during  the  dormant  stage 
stimulates  growth,  while  summer  pruning  seems  to  weaken 


264 


ORCHARD   MANAGEMENT 


the  trees.     Pruning  may  be  performed  at  any  time  during 

the  fall  or  winter,  but  the  wounds  do  not  start  to  heal 

until  spring. 

All  trees  should  be  pruned  in  such  a  manner  as  to  pre- 

vent decay  and  to  preserve  sound  trunks.     This  is  ac- 

complished by  cut- 
ting the  branches  in 
such  a  way  that 
they  will  heal  read- 
ily. The  living  and 
growing  part  of  a 
tree  is  the  cambium 
layer  that  lies  just 
beneath  the  bark. 
All  the  new  cells  are 

produced  in  this  tis- 
gue  some  Qf  them 

being  pushed  outward  to  produce  the  bark,  while  those  on 
the  inside  become  the  wood  tissue.  When  a  branch  is 
removed,  healing  tissue  is  produced  in  this  cambium  layer 
and  gradually  grows  over  the  wound.  This  protects  the 
wood  cells  beneath  it  from  the  fungi  and  bacteria  that  cause 
decay. 

To  hasten  the  healing  of  wounds  all  branches  should 
be  cut  as  close  to  the  trunk  or  branch  as  possible.  In 
pruning  twigs  it  is  also  better  to  prune  to  a  bud,  —  that  is, 
to  cut  the  twig  just  above  a  bud,  —  which  draws  the  sap  to 
the  wound.  If  a  limb  is  cut  eight  or  ten  inches  beyond  the 
trunk,  the  wound  does  not  heal  readily  and  when  a  stub 
becomes  decayed  the  disease  travels  down  through  the 
heart  of  the  tree,  causing  a  hollow  trunk.  Such  a  tree 
blows  over  easily  during  a  heavy  storm.  To  protect 


Fig.   141.  —  Proper  and  improper  removal  of  a  large 
limb.    The  trunk  on  right  shows  the  proper  method. 


EXERCISES  265 

wounds  larger  than  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter  from 
decay,  it  is  well  to  paint  them.  Raw  linseed  oil  and  pure 
white  lead  mixed  to  a  thick  paste  make  the  best  paint  for 
this  purpose. 

In  pruning  large  limbs  in  which  there  is  danger  of  the 
weight  of  the  branch  stripping  the  bark  before  the  limb  is 
entirely  sawed  off,  a  cut  is  made  on  the  under  side  of  the 
branch  about  a  foot  from  the  trunk,  by  sawing  about  a 
third  through  the  branch.  The  branch  is  then  sawed  off 
from  the  upper  side  a  short  distance  beyond  this  point. 
The  stub  is  then  pruned  away  close  to  the  trunk  without 
danger.  The  cleaner  the  cut,  the  more  quickly  it  will  heal, 
hence  in  pruning  large  branches,  it  is  advisable  to  trim 
the  cambium  layer  with  a  sharp  knife  after  the  branch  is 
sawed  off.  Tools  that  make  sharp,  clean  cuts  rather  than 
jagged  wounds  should  always  be  used  in  pruning. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Name  the  two  mulching  systems  and  give  the  advantages 
of  each. 

2.  Is  the  practice  of  cover-cropping  common  in  your  locality? 
What  kinds  of  cover  crops,  if  any,  are  used? 

3.  Obtain  roots  of  vetch,  mammoth  clover,  peas,  and  beans, 
and  observe  the  nodules  in  which  live  the  bacteria  that  have 
the  power  of  taking  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  giving  it  to  the 
nodule-bearing  plants. 

4.  How  much  seed  would  it  take  to  sow  a  cover  crop  of  winter 
vetch  in  an  orchard  384  feet  long  and  256  feet  wide?     When 
should  it  be  seeded  and  when  should  it  be  plowed  under  ? 

5.  How   are   orchards   usually   fertilized   in   your   section? 
Are  commercial  fertilizers  used  ? 

6.  What  is  the  effect  of  nitrogen  on  plant  growth?     How 
do  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  affect  fruit  production  ? 


266  ORCHARD    MANAGEMENT 

HOME   PROJECT 

Prune  six  trees  of  a  bearing  orchard  as  directed  in  the 
text.  Describe  in  spaces  the  condition  of  the  trees  before 
pruning;  the  approximate  number,  size,  and  position  of  the 
branches  removed;  your  reasons  for  so  doing;  and  the  time 
required  to  prune  each  tree.  Note  the  results  of  your  work  on 
the  character  and  size  of  the  new  growth,  the  color,  size,  and 
quality  of  the  fruit.  What  conclusions  can  you  draw  as  to  the 
necessity,  amount,  and  character  of  pruning  the  trees  require  ? 


CHAPTER   VII 
FRUIT  PESTS 

THERE  are  few  sections  where  fruit  may  be  grown  without 
protection  from  insects  and  diseases.  Each  year  new 
pests  appear  and  the  older  a  fruit  section  becomes  the 
more  numerous  are  its  insects  and  diseases. 

INSECT   PESTS 

From  a  horticultural  standpoint,  the  insects  with  which 
a  fruit  grower  has  to  contend  may  all  be  grouped  under 
two  heads,  —  the  chewing  insects  and  the  sucking  insects. 


Fig.  142.  —  Section  of  a  wormy  apple.     Codling  moth  and  cocoon. 
267 


268 


FRUIT    PESTS 


Chewing  Insects.  —  The  chewing  insects  actually  eat 
or  chew  some  portion  of  the  plant.  The  tent  caterpillar 
eats  the  foliage,  and  the  "  worm"  of  the  codling  moth  chews 
the  fruit.  As  a  rule,  such  insects  are  most  easily  controlled 
by  poisoning  their  food.  Arsenic  is  the  poison  usually 
used.  The  most  common  commercial  forms  of  this  poison 
are  Paris  green  and  arsenate  of  lead. 

Codling  Moth. —  The  codling  moth,  a  small  grayish- 
brown  moth,  attacks  apples,  pears,  and  quinces.  It  causes 

the    fruit    to    ripen 
prematurely  and  fall 

f^  W  to  the  ground.     This 

Hk  insect  probably  does 

''JM  more  damage  to  the 

!  « IHh*  fruit  than  any  other. 

About  the  time  the 
young  fruits  are  be- 
ginning to  form,  the 
adult  insect  flies 
about  the  orchard 
laying  its  eggs. 
Each  egg  hatches 
into  a  worm  that 
eats  its  way  into 
the  fruit,  usually 
through  the  calyx, 
where  it  lives  until  mature.  The  insect  leaves  the  fruit 
at  this  time  and  finds  its  way  to  some  protected  place 
where  it  forms  a  cocoon  and  later  changes  to  a  moth. 

The  codling  moth  is  controlled  by  spraying  with  arsenate 
of  lead  or  some  other  arsenical  poison.  This  should  be 
applied  immediately  after  the  petals  have  fallen  so  that 


Fig.  143.  —  Time  to  spray  for  the  codling  moth  — 
just  after  the  petals  have  fallen  and  before  the 
calyx  lobes  close. 


CANKERWORM 


269 


the  poison  will  reach  the  small  calyx  before  the  worm  enters 
the  fruit.  As  the  time  of  hatching  is  somewhat  prolonged, 
it  is  advisable  to  spray  again  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks. 
In  many  sections  of  the  country  there  are  two  or  more 
broods  of  the  codling  moth  in  one  summer,  and  under 
these  conditions  it  is  necessary  to  repeat  the  spraying  at 
the  times  of  the  succeeding  broods,  the  exact  times  varying 
with  the  season  and  locality.  The  worms  of  the  last 
brood  are  the  ones  seen  when  the  winter  apples  are  har- 
vested. Many  of 
them  leave  the  fruit 
while  in  storage  and 
form  their  cocoons  on 
the  sides  of  crates, 
barrels,  or  other 
storage  receptacles. 

Cankerworm.— 
The  cankerworm 
feeds  upon  the  foliage 
of  apple  trees,  often 
entirely  stripping 
them  of  leaves.  The 
worms  are  brownish 
and  about  an  inch 
long  when  fully 
grown.  They  lower  Fig>  I44> ~~ Webs  of  a  tent  caterPmar  on  an  aPPle  tree- 
themselves  to  the  ground  by  means  of  a  fine  thread. 

Cankerworms  are  controlled  by  spraying  with  an  arsen- 
ical poison  applied  as  soon  as  the  worms  are  seen.  Ar- 
senate  of  lead  applied  as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  formed  in 
the  spring,  usually  controls  them.  Where  the  fall  canker- 
worm  is  troublesome,  use  the  same  spray  in  the  fall. 


270  FRUIT  PESTS 

Tent  Caterpillar.  —  The  tent  caterpillar  forms  a  web- 
like  tent  in  the  crotch  of  the  branches.  The  insects  leave 
this  protection  at  certain  times  of  the  day  to  feed  upon 
the  foliage,  returning  to  the  tents  at  night.  The  young 
caterpillars,  which  hatch  in  the  spring  just  as  the  leaves 
open,  are  voracious  eaters.  Unless  controlled,  they  will 
soon  strip  an  infested  tree  of  its  foliage.  They  are  es- 
pecially fond  of  the  foliage  of  apples  and  cherries.  They 
grow  very  rapidly  until  matured,  when  they  are  about 
two  inches  long. 

The  tent  caterpillar  is  easily  controlled  by  spraying  the 
foliage  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green.  If  the  trees 
are  not  sprayed,  the  tents  formed  are  readily  seen  and 
should  be  cut  out  or  destroyed  when  the  worms  are  still 
inside. 

Web  worm. --The  web  worm  is  often  mistaken  for 
the  tent  caterpillar,  but  it  differs  from  the  latter  in  ap- 
pearing later  and  in  forming  its  web  over  its  feeding  sur- 
face rather  than  simply  in  the  crotch  of  the  branches.  The 
fall  webworm,  which  is  most  common,  usually  appears  in 
July  or  August. 

This  insect  may  be  easily  controlled  by  pruning  and 
burning  the  webs  when  they  first  appear,  and  while  they 
are  still  small.  If  not  controlled  the  web  enlarges  and 
covers  large  branches  which  the  worms  defoliate. 

Plum  Curculio.  --  This  is  the  worst  enemy  of  plums  and 
often  attacks  cherries.  The  mature  beetle  is  about  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch  long,  grayish-brown,  with  two  conspicuous 
humps  on  its  back,  and  feeds  slightly  upon  the  foliage. 
It  has  a  long  snout  with  which  it  cuts  a  crescent-shaped 
hole  on  the  surface  of  a  young  hard  fruit  in  which  it  deposits 
its  egg.  The  white  grub,  which  hatches  from  the  egg,  eats 


SUCKING   INSECTS 


271 


its  way  towards  the  center  of  the  fruit,  eventually  causing 
it  to  drop.  Sometimes  it  also  stings  the  fruit  of  the  apple, 
pear,  and  quince,  causing  the  formation  of  knotty  fruit. 
The  apple  curculio  also  works  in  a  similar  manner. 

Regular  spraying  with  arsenical  poison  is  generally  effec- 
tive in  controlling  these  insects.  When  the  beetles  are 
very  numerous  they  may  be 
quickly  reduced  by  jarring 
the  trees  very  early  in  the 
morning,  beginning  soon  after 
the  fruit  begins  to  set.  The 
larger  branches  are  knocked 
with  a  padded  pole  and  the 
curculio  curls  up  when  it 
feels  the  sudden  jar,  drops 
to  the  ground,  and  may  be 
caught  on  a  white  sheet 
spread  beneath  the  tree. 

Sucking  Insects.  — The  sucking  insects  do  not  chew  or 
eat  any  portion  of  a  plant,  but  with  their  long  tubular 
mouth  parts  they  pierce  its  surface  and  suck  its  juices. 
Plant  lice  and  scale  insects  are  common  examples  of  this 
group.  It  is  impossible  to  poison  their  food  by  spraying 
with  arsenical  poisons.  In  dealing  with  such  insects,  it 
is  necessary  to  use  a  contact  spray ;  that  is,  one  that  will 
kill  when  it  strikes  the  body  of  the  insect.  The  most 
common  spray  of  this  class  is  the  lime-sulphur  spray  used 
against  the  San  Jose  scale.  Various  tobacco  extracts  or 
nicotine  sprays  used  in  killing  plant  lice  are  also  examples 
of  contact  sprays.  Sucking  insects  are  very  difficult  to 
destroy  as  it  is  necessary  to  hit  each  insect  with  the  spray. 
Therefore,  thoroughness  in  spraying  is  essential  to  success, 


Fig.  145.  —  Plum  tree  curculio.  a,  larva ; 
b,  pupa ;  c,  mature  beetle  ;  d,  curculio 
on  young  plum. 


272  FRUIT   PESTS 

since  the  insects  are  extremely  small  and  every  portion  of 
the  plant  must  be  covered. 

Plant  Lice  or  Aphids.  —  Plant  lice  usually  appear  on 
the  foliage  or  young  growths  in  the  spring  and  early  sum- 
mer. Some  seasons  they  are  more  prevalent  than  others. 
These  insects  suck  the  plant  juices,  causing  the  leaves  to 
curl  and  become  distorted.  The  green  aphid  attacks  the 
apple,  pear,  and  plum  trees,  while  the  common  black  aphid 
works  on  the  cherry.  The  eggs  are  laid 
on  the  branches  of  the  trees  in  the 
autumn,  hatch  in  the  spring,  and  the  lice 
locate  upon  the  young  shoots.  The 
woolly  aphid  attacks  both  the  branches 
and  roots  of  the  apple  and  is  distinguished 
from  the  others  by  having  a  conspicuous 
Fig.  146. -An aphid.  woolly  covering  The  root-inhabiting 

variety  of  this  insect  does  the  most  injury.  Infected  roots 
become  contorted  and  the  tree  sickens  or  dies. 

If  the  foliage  is  infected,  it  should  be  sprayed  with 
nicotine  or  strong  tobacco  tea  before  the  leaves  curl.  The 
root  aphid  is  destroyed  by  the  use  of  tobacco  dust,  four  to 
six  handfuls  of  which  should  be  spread  on  the  soil  and 
thoroughly  worked  into  it.  The  ends  of  the  shoots  of  young 
trees  should  be  dipped  into  a  pail  of  tobacco  water. 

San  Jose  Scale.  —  The  San  Jose  scale  is  the  most  dan- 
gerous insect  pest  of  the  orchard.  All  our  common  fruit 
trees  are  subject  to  its  attack  as  well  as  many  of  the  small 
fruits  like  the  currant  and  gooseberry.  It  is  found  upon 
the  branches,  leaves,  and  fruit  of  the  tree  and  is  usually 
first  discovered  on  the  fruit  during  the  harvesting  period. 
Here  it  causes  red,  circular  discolorations,  in  the  center  of 
which  are  the  black  scales.  The  insect  is  exceedingly  dif- 


r 


BORERS 


273 


ficult  to  detect  on  the  branches  unless  badly  infected.  The 
tiny  yellow  body  is  completely  covered  with  a  single  small 
dark  scale  not  so  large  as  the  head  of  a  pin.  The  dead 
scales  are  gray  in  color.  When  rubbed  off  they  leave 
white  circular  spots,  and  cause  badly  infected  branches  to 
have  a  rather  grayish  appearance.  This  scale  multiplies 
very  rapidly  and  with  its 
tube-like  mouth  parts  it 
pierces  the  surface  of  the 
plant,  sucking  the  juices 
within.  If  not  controlled, 
it  will  kill  large  fruit  trees 
in  a  few  years. 

In  infected  regions,  trees 
must  be  sprayed  each 
year.  The  application  of 
strong  lime-sulphur  spray 
applied  early  in  the  spring 
just  before  the  buds  open  is 
now  the  standard  method 
of  control.  It  is  necessary 
to  spray  the  trees  while 
they  are  dormant  to  per- 
mit the  application  of  a 
spray  strong  enough  to 
kill  the  insect  without  injuring  the  trees.  As  this  is  a 
contact  poison,  thoroughness  is  of  prime  importance,  for 
a  small  number  of  insects  left  untouched  will  cause  serious 
infection  the  following  season. 

Borers.  —  Borers  are  injurious  to  peach  and  apple  trees. 
They  usually  infect  the  trunks  of  the  trees  just  above  the 
ground.  They  cannot  be  controlled  by  spraying,  as  the 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. 1 8 


Fig.  147.  —  San  Jose  scale  insects.  Enlarged. 
m,  male  scale ;  f,  female  scale  ;  y,  young 
scale ;  a,  young  insect. 


274  FRUIT   PESTS 

poison  cannot  be  placed  where  it  will  be  effective.  Many 
kinds  of  washes  have  been  recommended,  but  few  of  them 
prove  satisfactory.  The  fruit  grower  usually  examines 
his  trees  every  spring  and  fall,  and  digs  out  all  borers  that 
he  finds  working  in  the  trunks.  The  soil  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  base  of  the  tree  about  a  week  or  two  be- 
fore digging  out  the  borers.  Their  presence  will  then  be 
indicated  by  fresh  castings. 

FRUIT   DISEASES 

The  fruit  grower  has  to  contend  also  with  plant  diseases. 
These  may  be  classified  under  two  heads,  —  fungous  and 
bacterial  diseases. 

Fungous  Diseases.  —  A  fungus  is  a  plant  living  upon 
other  plants.  It  contains  no  chlorophyll  and,  therefore, 
cannot  manufacture  food  for  itself,  hence  it  must  live  by 
appropriating  food  from  other  plants.  Some  fungi  live 
upon  the  fruit,  others  upon  the  foliage,  and  others  upon 
the  bark  of  the  branches,  while  still  others  live  upon  two 
or  more  parts  of  the  tree.  Nearly  all  scabs,  smuts,  mil- 
dews, rots,  and  blights  are  fungous  diseases.  For  the 
control  of  these  it  is  well  to  know  something  of  their  life 
history.  Fungi  reproduce  by  means  of  minute  spores, 
which  are  somewhat  similar  to  seeds.  These  spores,  car- 
ried by  the  wind,  insects,  or  rain,  alight  on  the  surface  of  a 
leaf  or  fruit  and  if  conditions  are  favorable  germinate 
there.  Most  spores  will  not  germinate  unless  moisture  is 
present.  The  spores  upon  germinating  produce  small 
rootlets  which  penetrate  the  surface  of  the  leaf  or  skin  of 
the  fruit  and  spread  from  cell  to  cell  in  every  direction, 
feeding  upon  the  tissues  within.  When  a  fungus  has  reached 
this  stage,  it  is  impossible  to  destroy  it  with  a  spray,  since 


SCAB  275 

it  is  within  the  tissues.  In  a  short  time,  the  fungus  bears 
fruit  by  sending  up  above  the  surface  many  small  stalks 
which  bear  thousands  of  other  microscopic  spores,  which 
are  afterwards  carried  to  other  portions  of  the  plant  and 
to  other  plants.  This  is  a  typical  example  of  the  life  his- 
tory of  a  fungus.  It  shows  pretty  clearly  that  common 
fungous  diseases  must  be  controlled  by  spraying  before 
the  spores  germinate.  Spraying 
is  a  preventive  measure  rather 
than  a  cure.  We  cannot  cure 
potatoes  after  they  have  been 
blighted  or  apples  after  they 
have  been  affected  with  scab, 
but  we  can  prevent  the  spores 
from  spreading  to  others.  Bor- 
deaux mixture  and  lime-sulphur 
solution  are  the  two  most 
effective  sprays  for  controlling 
fungous  diseases. 

Scab.  —  This   is   one   of    the 
most  common  fungous  diseases 

Of    apples    and    pears,    especially    Fig.    148.  —  Pear  scab  on  leaf  and 

in   wet    seasons.      It    is    most 

apparent  upon  the  fruit,  causing  brown  or  black  blotches 
with  whitish  edges.  When  the  disease  becomes  excessive, 
it  cracks  the  fruit  and  causes  it  to  be  misshapen.  It  also 
occurs  as  brown  spots  on  the  leaves  and  causes  them  to 
turn  yellow  and  fall.  Sometimes  this  disease  attacks 
the  young  blossom  stems  and  girdles  them,  causing  the 
young  fruits  to  fall.  Some  varieties,  like  the  Snow  apple 
and  Flemish  Beauty  pear,  are  more  susceptible  than 
others. 


276  FRUIT   PESTS 

Scab  may  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  or  dilute  lime-sulphur  spray.  These  should  be 
applied  just  before  the  blossoms  open  and  again  after  the 
petals  fall.  When  the  weather  is  moist  and  warm,  a  con- 
dition favorable  for  the  development  of  this  disease,  ad- 
ditional sprayings  may  be  necessary.  Plowing  under  early 
in  the  spring,  the  dead  leaves  on  which  the  spores  have 
rested  over  winter,  is  beneficial  in  controlling  the  disease. 

Brown  Rot.  — This  disease  attacks  the  stone  fruits  such 
as  peaches,  cherries,  or  plums  about  the  time  of  ripening, 
causing  them  to  decay  quickly.  Infected  fruit,  allowed 
to  remain  on  or  under  the  tree,  carries  the  spores  over  win- 
ter. During  warm,  moist  weather,  this  disease  develops 
very  rapidly. 

There  is  no  cure  for  the  disease  when  it  develops  sud- 
denly at  the  harvesting  time.  It  may  be  prevented,  how- 
ever, by  spraying  with  lime-sulphur  or  Bordeaux  mixture 
after  the  fruit  is  set,  and  two  or  three  times  later  at  in- 
tervals of  about  two  weeks.  As  most  of  the  stone  fruits 
are  susceptible  to  injury  by  spraying,  the  dilute  lime-sul- 
phur spray  is  preferable.  On  peaches  and  Japanese  plums 
the  self -boiled  lime-sulphur  spray  should  be  used.  All 
infected  fruit  should  be  picked  from  the  trees  during  har- 
vesting and  carried  from  the  orchard.  Thinning  will  also 
help  to  prevent  the  spreading  of  this  disease,  if  it  develops 
during  the  ripening  season. 

Bitter  Rot.  --  This  is  a  more  serious  disease  of  the  apples 
in  the  South  and  Middle  West  than  in  the  more  northern 
states.  It  forms  cankers  on  the  branches  and  makes  a 
brown,  decayed  place  on  the  fruit.  The  decayed  area  is 
very  bitter  and  usually  extends  to  the  core. 

Bordeaux  mixture   sprayed  as   recommended   for  scab 


PEACH-LEAF   CURL 


277 


usually  controls  this  disease.  When  the  disease  is  very 
bad,  additional  sprayings  later  in  the  season  are  necessary. 
The  cankered  areas  on  the  limbs  should  be  cut  out  and 
burned. 

Shot-hole  Fungus. -- This  fungous  disease  of  cherries, 
plums,  peaches,  currants,  and  gooseberries  causes  round, 
brown  spots  on  the  foliage,  which  later  drop  out,  leaving 
the  leaves  full  of  holes.  When  the  disease  is  severe,  the 
leaves  turn  yellow  and  fall,  thus  preventing  a  vigorous 
growth  of  the  tree  and  the 
formation  of  strong  fruit 
buds  for  the  succeeding  year. 

The  foliage  should  be 
sprayed  with  dilute  lime- 
sulphur  before  blossoming, 
after  the  blossoms  fall,  again 
two  weeks  later,  and  some- 
times an  additional  spraying 
is  necessary.  For  currants 
and  gooseberries,  the  third 
spray  should  be  omitted  until 
after  the  fruit  is  harvested. 

Peach-leaf  Curl.  —  This  is 
a  common  disease  on  the 
foliage  of  the  peach,  causing  the  leaves  to  become  curled, 
puckered,  puffed  over,  and  reddish  in  color.  If  not  con- 
trolled, the  foliage  will  drop. 

The  spores  of  the  disease  are  carried  over  winter  on  the 
buds  and  on  the  twigs,  hence  it  is  necessary  to  spray  with 
a  fungicide  just  before  the  bud  scales  open.  If  the  trees 
are  sprayed  with  lime-sulphur  in  the  spring  for  the  San 
Jose  scale,  no  additional  spraying  is  necessary. 


Fig.  149.  —  Peach-leaf  curl. 


278 


FRUIT  PESTS 


Black  Knot. — The  large  black  swellings  that  are  fre- 
quently seen  on  the  branches  of  the  plums  and  sour  cherries 
are  caused  by  the  black-knot  disease.  It  attacks  the 
young  twigs  first  and  works  its  way  down  into  the  larger 
branches,  finally  killing  the  tree,  if  not  controlled. 

To  control  this  disease,  remove  all  infected  limbs  by  cut- 
ting several  inches  below  the  knot,  and  then  burn.  Paint  all 


Fig.  150.  —  Development  of  black  knot  on  young  branches. 

large  wounds  made  in  removing  infected  branches.  Spray 
the  trees  as  directed  for  brown  rot,  and  remove  all  wild 
cherry  trees  and  neglected  plum  trees  about  the  garden. 
It  is  not  a  serious  disease,  if  controlled.  Every  spring 
the  trees  should  be  carefully  examined  and  all  infected 
branches  cut  out. 

Bacterial  Diseases.  —  Some  of  the  most  serious  diseases 
of  fruits  are  caused  by  bacteria.  Fire  blight,  a  common 
disease  of  pears,  apples,  and  quinces,  is  a  familiar  example. 
Although  we  cannot  cure  or  prevent  these  diseases  by 
spraying,  because  they  work  entirely  within  the  plant,  we 
can  generally  control  them  by  various  means  which  will 
be  considered  later. 

Fire  Blight.  -  Fire  blight  is  a  serious  bacterial  disease 
of  pears,  quinces,  and  apples.  The  bacteria  work  within 


FIRE   BLIGHT  279 

the  plant  tissues,  and  it  is  impossible  to  control  the  dis- 
ease by  spraying.  On  account  of  its  prevalence,  in  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  country,  many  of  our  standard  pears 
cannot  be  grown.  In  many  of  the  important  pear-grow- 
ing regions,  it  annually  kills  thousands  of  trees  and  is  prob- 
ably the  most  dreaded  of  all  pear  diseases.  It  appears 
early  in  the  spring  at  blossoming  time  and  is  believed  to 
be  carried  by  bees  from  tree  to  tree.  The  blight  attacks 
the  tips  of  the  young  growing  branches  and  works  its  way 
down  to  the  larger  limbs.  If  not  checked,  it  spreads  so 
rapidly  that  in  a  single  season,  an  entire  orchard  may  be 
ruined  by  it.  It  causes  the  leaves  to  turn  dark  brown  or 
black  and  the  infected  branches  to  shrivel  and  dry. 

Although  this  disease  cannot  be  cured  it  can  generally 
be  controlled.  Certain  varieties  of  fruits  are  more  suscep- 
tible to  fire  blight  than  others.  The  Russian  varieties  of 
apples  such  as  the  Wolf  River  and  the  Alexander  are  very 
susceptible,  as  well  as  the  Clapp's  Favorite  and  the  Bart- 
lett  pears,  while  the  Kieffer  pear  seems  to  be  especially 
resistant.  Hence  the  necessity  for  selecting  resistant 
varieties.  As  the  blight  infects  most  readily  the  vigorous 
growing  branches,  infected  orchards  should  be  checked  in 
their  growth.  The  trees  should  be  kept  in  a  strong  healthy 
condition,  but  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  produce  soft, 
sappy,  luxuriant  growths.  All  forms  of  nitrogenous  fer- 
tilizers should  be  withheld  and  if  the  orchard  has  been 
tilled,  it  should  be  seeded  at  once.  Care  should  also  be 
taken  not  to  leave  wounded  parts  of  the  trunk  or  branches 
exposed. 

The  trees  should  be  watched  for  the  first  signs  of  the  dis- 
ease upon  the  tips  of  the  branches,  especially  during  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  spring.  Infected  branches  should  be 


280  FRUIT  PESTS 

cut  away  and  burned  immediately.  All  tools  used  should 
be  disinfected  in  a  5  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution  after 
each  cut.  In  the  early  spring  before  the  buds  swell,  the 
orchard  should  be  pruned  carefully,  cutting  away  all  dis- 
eased wood  well  below  the  infected  area.  Cankers  on  the 
larger  branches  should  also  be  cut  out,  burned,  and  the 
wound  disinfected.  It  is  upon  these  cankers  that  the 
blight  is  often  carried  over  from  year  to  year. 

Peach  Yellows. — Peach  yellows  is  one  of  the  most 
dreaded  diseases  of  peach  trees.  Although  it  cannot 
be  cured,  it  may  be  controlled.  The  disease  first  becomes 
apparent  on  the  infected  fruit  which  ripens  prematurely, 
is  very  highly  colored,  often  spotted  with  red,  and  usually 
filled  with  red  streaks  extending  from  the  pit  to  the  skin. 
As  the  disease  advances,  the  leaves  turn  yellow  and  in  the 
advanced  stage,  small,  slender  reddish  shoots  bearing  nar- 
row yellowish  leaves  are  produced.  In  the  beginning  only 
certain  branches  seem  to  be  affected,  but  the  disease  soon 
spreads  to  the  whole  tree. 

The  only  method  of  controlling  this  disease  is  to  watch 
carefully  for  any  signs  of  it  and  to  uproot  and  burn  affected 
trees  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  detected,  as  it  spreads  very 
rapidly  through  the  orchard.  During  the  harvesting 
period,  one  should  be  especially  watchful  and  mark  all 
trees  that  show  the  least  signs  of  being  affected.  Im- 
mediately after  harvest,  all  such  trees  should  be  uprooted 
and  burned. 

"  Little  Peach."  -In  some  regions,  "  little  peach"  is 
as  serious  a  disease  as  the  peach  yellows.  As  the  name 
implies,  the  fruit  fails  to  enlarge,  and  the  infected  tree  soon 
dies. 

The  treatment  for  "  little  peach  "  is  the  same  as  for 


CROWN   GALL 


281 


peach  yellows.     There  is  nothing  that  can  be  done  with 
infected  trees  except  to  uproot  and  burn  them. 

Crown  Gall.  —  Crown  gall  causes  unsightly  swellings  to 
appear  on  the  roots  of  fruit  trees.  It  is  most  frequently 
found  on  young 
nursery  stock. 
From  the  enlarged 
swellings  or  knots, 
numerous  fine  roots 
are  frequently  pro- 
duced, hence  this 
disease  is  often 

called  "hairy  root/7  Fig  ^•-Roots  infected  with  crown 
The  extent  of  the  injury  caused  by  it  is  not  definitely 
known,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  vitality  of  the  tree  is 
seriously  weakened.  Nursery  stock  should  be  examined 
before  planting,  and  infected  stock  should  be  rejected. 
This  is  the  only  preventive  practiced  by  the  fruit  grower. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Give  examples  of  chewing  insects,  sucking  insects,  bac- 
terial diseases,  and  fungous  diseases. 

2.  Why  is  an  orchard  planted  in  a  hollow  more  susceptible 
to  fungous  diseases  than  one  upon  high  sloping  land  ? 

3.  How  does  the  method  of  pruning  exercise  an  influence 
over  disease  control  ? 

4.  Examine  bare  twigs  and  storage  apples  for  San  Jose  scale. 
With  a  pin  lift  the  scale  from  the  insect  and  examine  each  with 
the  lens.     What  spray  is  used  against  this  pest  and  when  is  it 
applied  ? 

5.  Obtain  three  perfectly  sound  apples.     Break  the  skin  of 
one,  bruise  another  without  breaking  the  skin,  and  leave  the 


282  I  kl'IT    I'KSTS 

third  perfectly  sound.  Lay  away  on  a  plate  and  observe  at 
intervals,  noticing  in  which  apple  decay  first  starts.  What  does 
this  teach  us  regarding  the  way  fruit  should  be  handled  ? 

6.  How  many  broods  of  the  codling  moth  are  there  in  your 
region?     When  does  each  appear? 

7.  How  would  you  detect  and  handle  a  case  of  fire  blight  ? 

HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  samples  of  all  the  diseases  of  the 
common  fruits  of  your  locality,  classifying  the  same  as  outlined 
in   the  text.     Describe  the  life  history  of  each,   extent    and 
character  of  the  injury  done  by  each,  and  the  proper  methods  of 
control. 

2.  Spray  the  home  orchard  for  the  control  of  insects  or  plant 
diseases. 

3.  Visit  neighboring  orchards  and  collect  specimens  of    all 
insects  infecting  them. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

SPRAYING   MIXTURES 

SPRAYS   FOR   FUNGOUS   DISEASES 

Bordeaux  Mixture.  —  Bordeaux  mixture  is  one  of  the 
standard  fungicides  and  is  used  especially  for  fungous 
diseases  of  the  potato,  grape,  currant,  gooseberry,  apple, 
pear,  and  European  plum. 

Formula : 

Copper  sulphate 4  Ib. 

Lime 4  Ib. 

Water 50  gal. 

This  spray  proves  most  efficient  when  used  directly  after 
mixing.  To  facilitate  the  work,  the  fruit  grower  dissolves 
the  copper  sulphate  hi  fairly  large  quantities,  and  slakes 
lime  ready  for  use.  In  making  the  mixture,  success  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  way  the  copper  sulphate  and  lime 
are  united.  Each  should  be  diluted  as  much  as  necessary 
before  mixing.  In  making  50  gallons  of  Bordeaux,  the 
copper  sulphate  should  be  diluted  to  25  gallons  and  the 
lime  to  25  gallons  before  pouring  them  together.  If  the 
mixture  is  improperly  made,  it  will  appear  very  flocculent 
and  settle  rapidly,  while  a  good  mixture  appears  creamy 
and  stands  for  some  time  without  settling.  Only  the  best 
fresh  stone  lime  should  be  used.  Prepared  or  hydrated 
lime  is  sometimes  used  when  stone  lime  is  not  available. 

Strong  Copper  Sulphate  Solution.  —  Strong  copper  sul- 
phate solution  is  sometimes  used  as  a  fungicide  to  apply 

283 


284 


SPRAYING   MIXTURES 


upon  trees  in  the  spring  while  they  are  still  dormant.     It 
is  often  used  as  an  early  spray  on  peaches  for  the  leaf 
curl,  and  on  apples  for  the  apple  scab.     The  lime-sulphur 
sprays  have  largely  taken  its  place. 
Formula : 

Copper  sulphate i  lb. 

Water 25-50  gal. 

Weak  Copper  Sulphate 
Solution.  The  weak 
copper  sulphate  solution 
is  used  as  a  fungicide  to 
control  the  rot  on  stone 
fruits  when  the  fruit  is 
so  far  advanced  that 
other  sprays  would  dis- 
color it.  As  this  spray 
contains  no  lime,  it  does 
not  stick  so  well  as  Bor- 
deaux mixture  and  hence 
must  be  applied  more 

frequently.     For  peaches  and  Japanese  plums  it  should  be 

weaker  than  for  the  other  fruits. 
Formula : 

Copper  sulphate i  lb. 

Water        150-300  gal. 

Self -boiled  Lime-sulphur  Solution.  --This  is  a  fungicide 
used  for  trees  having  very  tender  foliage  and  is  especially 
valuable  for  spraying  peaches  and  Japanese  plums. 

Formula : 

Lump  lime  .     .     . 8  lb. 

Sulphur       8lb. 

Water 50  gal. 


Fig.  152.  —  Testing  samples  of  Bordeaux  mix 
ture  by  settling.  The  second  and  fifth 
samples  are  best. 


DILUTE  LIME-SULPHUR   SOLUTION 


285 


Good  stone  quicklime  is  selected  and  enough  water  added 
to  almost  cover  it.  The  sulphur  is  sifted  and  added  to  the 
lime  as  soon  as  slaking  begins.  Constant  stirring  during 
the  slaking  process  is  necessary,  and  sufficient  water  to 
prevent  burning  should  be  added.  This  mixture  should 
slake  vigorously  for  five  minutes,  when  cold  water  should 
be  added  to  prevent  further  cooking. 

Dilute  Lime-sulphur  Solution.  --  The  advantages  of 
this  spray  over  Bordeaux  mixture  are  that  it  can  be  pre- 
pared very  readily,  it  does  not  clog  the  spraying  nozzles, 
or  cause  burning  of  the  foliage  and  russeting  of  the  fruit. 


Fig-   J53-  —  Spraying  cherries  to  control  the  rot.     A  typical  fruit  sprayer  used  by  fruit 

growers. 

It  is  used  especially  during  the  growing  season  on  the  foliage 
of  apples,  pears,  European  plums,  and  cherries,  but  it 
cannot  take  the  place  of  Bordeaux  mixture  in  the  control 
of  potato  and  grape  diseases. 

It  is  prepared  by  diluting  either  the  commercial  or  home- 
made concentrated  lime-sulphur  solution.     The  amount  of 


286 


SPRAYING  MIXTURES 


dilution  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  strength  of  the  con- 
centrated solution  and  the  kind  of  trees  to  be  sprayed. 

SPRAYS   FOR  CHEWING  INSECTS 

Arsenate    of    Lead.  —  Arsenate  of  lead  is  used  exten- 
sively to-day  for  chewing  insects.     It  sticks  better  than 


Fig.  154.  —  Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  just  after  petals  fall,  for  codling  moth  worm. 

Paris  green  and  is  not  so  likely  to  burn  the  foliage.     When 
the  lime  and  sulphur  sprays  are  used  as  a  fungicide,  it  is 
one  of  the  few  poisons  that  can  safely  be  mixed  with  them. 
Formula: 

Arsenate  of  lead 2  Ib. 

Water 50  gal. 

This  poison  is  usually  sold  in  small  kegs  and  comes  in  the 
form  of  a  paste  resembling  white  lead.  Some  companies 
manufacture  it  in  the  powdered  form.  In  such  cases 
but  half  the  amount  (by  weight)  recommended  in  the 
formula  should  be  used.1 

Paris  Green.  —  Paris  green  may  be  safely  used  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  but  not  with  the  lime-sulphur  sprays. 

1  Arsenate  of  calcium  has  given  good  results  as  a  substitute  for  arsenate  of 
lead  and  may  be  used  on  all  except  the  stone  fruits. 


SPRAYS    FOR    SUCKING    INSECTS  287 

It  is  always  advisable  to  use  lime  with  Paris  green  to 
prevent  burning  and  to  help  the  Paris  green  to  adhere 
to  the  foliage.  This  spray  is  used  on  the  potato  vines  to 
control  the  potato  beetle  more  than  for  any  other  purpose. 
Formula : 

Paris  green \  Ib. 

Stone  lime 2  Ib. 

Water 50  gal. 

Hellebore.  —  Hellebore  is  the  powdered  root  of  a  plant. 
It  kills  insects  both  by  contact  and  as  a  poison  applied 
on  the  foliage.  Since  it  is  not  so  strong  a  poison  as  the 
arsenical  compounds,  it  may  be  used  with  greater  safety 
a  short  time  before  the  fruit  ripens.  It  is  used  chiefly 
against  the  currant  worm. 

Formula : 

Hellebore i  Ib. 

Water       25  gal. 

SPRAYS   FOR  SUCKING  INSECTS 

Strong  Lime-sulphur  Solution. — There  are  various 
formulas  for  making  the  lime-sulphur  solution  for  scale 
insects,  but  the  following  is  an  old  favorite  formula  that 
has  been  used  by  fruit  growers  for  many  years  and  is  still 
considered  very  satisfactory. 

Formula : 

Lump  lime 20  Ib. 

Sulphur 15  Ib. 

Water        50  gal. 

After  weighing  out  the  proper  amount  of  stone  lime  and 
sifting  15  pounds  of  sulphur,  the  lime  is  poured  into  the 
cooking  tank  which  contains  5  or  10  gallons  of  boiling 
water,  and  the  sulphur  is  then  added.  Enough  cold  water 


288 


SPRAYING    MIXTURES 


should  be  added  to  prevent  boiling  over  and  to  maintain 
a  thick  liquid.  When  the  mixture  has  boiled  about  an  hour, 
it  should  be  of  a  dark  amber  color.  It  is  then  diluted  to 
50  gallons  and  applied  to  the  trees  while  still  hot. 

In  making  a  small  quantity  of  the  spray,  an  iron  kettle 
may  be  used,  but  when  larger  quantities  are  desired,  it  is 

boiled  by  live  steam 
in  a  barrel  or  in  a 
large  wooden  tank. 

Concentrated  Lime- 
sulphur  Solution.  - 
Growers  that  have 
the  facilities  for  cook- 
ing lime  and  sulphur 
frequently  prefer  to 
make  it  in  a  con- 
centrated form.  This 
may  afterwards  be 
diluted  in  spraying 
for  the  San  Jose  scale 
or  used  as  a  summer  spray  for  fungous  diseases.  This  spray 
is  cooked  in  a  similar  manner  and  is  afterwards  strained 
into  an  air-tight  barrel,  as  exposure  to  air  causes  the  sulphur 
compounds  to  lose  their  value.  Each  lot  should  be  tested 
with  the  Baume  hydrometer  and  diluted  when  used, 
according  to  the  dilution  table. 
Formula : 

Stone  lime 75  Ib. 

Sulphur 150  Ib. 

Water       50  gal. 

Tobacco.  --  There  are  various  tobacco  extracts  now  upon 
the  market  used  as  contact  sprays  for  plant  lice  and  other 


Fig.  155.  —  Making  lime-sulphur  spray. 


KXKRCISES  289 

insects.  The  variation  in  the  strength  of  the  several  brands 
is  such  that  the  recommendations  of  the  makers  as  to  dilu- 
tion should  be  followed.  Nicotine  sulphate  (40  per  cent 
solution)  is  widely  recommended  for  plant  lice.  A  half  pint 
of  nicotine  sulphate  is  mixed  with  50  gallons  of  water, 
to  which  3  pounds  of  soap  dissolved  in  hot  water  is  added. 

Kerosene  Emulsion.  —  Kerosene  emulsion  is  used  es- 
pecially as  a  summer  spray  for  plant  lice. 

Formula : 

Hard  soap J  Ib. 

Kerosene 2  gal. 

Water .     25-50  gal. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  a  gallon  of  soft  boiling  water  and 
add  the  kerosene,  which  should  have  stood  in  a  warm  room 
to  allow  it  to  become  as  warm  as  possible  without  danger 
from  fire.  Mix  together  and  stir  vigorously  for  about 
five  minutes  or  until  it  becomes  creamy  white. 

For  spraying  dormant  trees  dilute  only  to  1 5  gallons ;  for 
spraying  trees  in  foliage  dilute. to  25  to  50  gallons. 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  Bordeaux  mixture  the  copper  sulphate  is  the  active 
fungicide.     Why  is  the  lime  added  ? 

2.  What  classes  of   orchard  pests   are  controlled  by   Bor- 
deaux mixture  and  dilute  lime-sulphur  solution  ? 

3.  What  class  of  poisons  must  be  added  for  chewing  insects? 
How  are  they  prepared  ? 

4.  In  the  control  of  sucking  insects,  what  sprays  are  used 
most  commonly?     How  are  they  made? 

5.  Why  is  arsenate  of  lead  preferred  to  Paris  green? 

6.  Why  is  it  best  to  use  lime  with  Paris  green? 

7.  At  what  period  of  growth  should  hellebore  be  used  as  a 
poison  ?     Why  ? 

M.    AND    H.    PLANT    PROD. —  IQ 


2 QO  SPRAYING  MIXTURES 

HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Arrange  with  a  local  fruit  grower  for  a  spraying  dem- 
onstration.    Enter   in   your  notebook  a   report    covering    the 
following  items : 

(a)  Name  of  grower. 

(b)  Kinds  of  fruit  sprayed. 

(c)  Purpose  of  spraying. 

(d)  Date  of  spraying. 

(e)  Formula  of  spray  used. 

(/)  Pressure  carried  during  application. 

(g)  Description  of  engine,  pump,  capacity  of  tank,  length  of 
hose  and  poles,  kind  and  number  of  nozzles,  number  of  trees 
sprayed  per  tank. 

(ti)  Method  of  application. 

(i)  Average  number  of  gallons  per  tree  of  spray  used. 

(j)  Total  cost  of  labor  and  material  per  tree. 

2.  Select  eight  trees  of  about  equal  size  in  your  own  orchard. 
Spray  four  of  them  as  directed  in  the  foregoing  chapter  with 
lime-sulphur  solution  and  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  proper  times. 
Compare  the  yield  of  the  sprayed  trees  with  that  of  the  un- 
sprayed  trees. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THINNING,    HARVESTING,    AND    STORING   FRUIT 

Thinning.  —  Trees  often  form  more  fruit  than  they  can 
properly  develop.  The  breaking  of  trees  while  heavily 
loaded  is  one  result  of  overproduction.  The  practice  of 
picking  off  part  of  this  fruit  before  it  is  matured  is  known 
as  thinning.  All  scabby,  wormy,  small,  and  otherwise 
inferior  specimens  are  removed  and  the  remaining  fruit 
thinned  to  such  a  distance  as  to  allow  perfect  development 
of  those  left  on  the  branches.  This  concentrates  the 
strength  of  the  tree  into  the  development  of  the  best  speci- 
mens. 

It  is  the  practice  of  progressive  fruit  growers  to  thin 
peaches,  plums,  and  pears  when  the  trees  are  heavily  loaded. 
The  thinning  of  apples  has  not  been  so  generally  practiced. 
However,  the  grower  endeavoring  to  produce  perfect 
fruit  must  practice  thinning  if  he  wishes  to  obtain  the 
highest  percentage  of  good-sized  specimens.  Thinning 
does  not  increase  the  total  yield  per  tree,  but  it  does  greatly 
increase  the  total  of  first-class  fruit  produced. 

When  fruit  is  set  very  thickly  upon  the  tree,  there  is 
much  danger  of  severe  injury  from  certain  diseases  and 
from  insects.  With  the  stone  fruits,  if  the  weather  happens 
to  be  warm  and  moist  during  the  harvesting  season,  brown 
rot  often  proves  a  serious  trouble.  When  the  fruit  is  so 
close  that  the  individuals  touch  each  other,  the  disease 
spreads  very  rapidly,  but  if  the  fruit  has  been  thinned, 
the  disease  will  not  prove  so  serious.  In  thinning  the  fruit, 

291 


292 


THINNING   AND   HARVESTING   FRUIT 


all  diseased  specimens  should  be  carried  from  the  orchard 
and  destroyed.  Thinning  also  tends  to  increase  the  crops 
in  the  off  years  of  varieties  that  bear  heavily  one  year 
and  lightly  the  succeeding  year. 

The  operation  of  thinning  depends  on  so  many  condi- 
tions that  no  definite  rule  can  be  given.  Most  growers 
have  learned  by  experience  the  proper  distance  that  fruits 
should  be  thinned.  As  a  general  rule  apples  should  be 
allowed  to  produce  but  one  fruit  to  the  spur  and  should 


Fig.    156.  —  An  overloaded  peach  tree. 


be  thinned  to  a  distance  of  six  to  ten  inches.  Large-sized 
varieties  of  plums  are  thinned  to  three  to  four  inches,  the 
smaller  varieties  are  thinned  to  a  less  distance.  Damson 


PICKING  293 

plums  are  allowed  to  produce  heavily  as  it  is  not  desirable 
to  grow  them  too  large  in  size.  Peaches  should  be  thinned 
to  a  distance  of  three  to  six  inches.  The  large-sized 
varieties  of  pears  should  be  thinned  about  the  same  as 
for  apples.  Small  fruits  are  not  usually  thinned. 

The  earlier  in  the  season  the  fruit  is  thinned  the  better. 
With  most  of  the  tree  fruits,  thinning  should  begin  imme- 
diately after  the  "  June  drop."  Thinning  may  be  done 
in  August  if  there  is  danger  of  breaking  the  limbs  by  over- 
production, but  the  other  benefits  will  not  be  so  pronounced 
as  if  the  work  had  been  done  earlier  in  ,the  season. 

Fruit  is  usually  thinned  by  hand,  although  small  shears 
made  especially  for  the  purpose  are  sometimes  used.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  fruit  spurs  in  the  opera- 
tion. When  fruit  is  thinned  by  hand,  the  spur  is  grasped 
firmly  in  one  hand  while  the  fruit  is  removed  with  the 
other  by  bending  it  and  twisting  backward.  The  cost  of 
thinning  is  not  great,  as  the  actual  time  consumed  in  thin- 
ning is  saved  at  the  harvest  time  in  picking  and  in  sorting 
the  crop.  In  the  Northwest  where  this  practice  is  very 
common,  it  is  estimated  that  thinning  costs  one  and  a 
half  to  two  cents  per  bushel  of  harvested  fruit. 

Picking.  --  The  quality  and  grade  of  fruit  depend  much 
upon  the  time  and  method  of  picking  it.  The  proper 
time  to  pick  fruit  varies  with  the  kind  and  the  variety. 
No  definite  rules  can  be  given,  as  much  depends  upon  the 
distance  the  fruit  must  be  shipped,  the  climate,  season, 
and  other  local  conditions.  When  fruit  is  to  be  shipped 
long  distances,  it  must  be  picked  earlier  than  fruit  intended 
for  the  local  market.  All  fruits  except  the  pear  reach  their 
highest  quality  when  they  are  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  trees. 

Apples  are  generally  picked  when  they  are  well  colored 


294 


THINNING   AND    HARYKSTIM;    FRUIT 


and  have  reached  full  size.  Summer  apples  and  early 
fall  varieties  are  sometimes  picked  before  this  time.  Win- 
ter apples  are  harvested  when  they  are  well  colored,  of 
full  size,  and  separate  readily  from  the  spur. 

Pears  should  be  harvested  Avhen  they  are  of  full  size,  of 
good  color,  but  while  still  firm.  As  soon  as  the  fruit  has 
reached  this  stage  and  separates  from  the  spur  by  raising 
it  upward,  the  crop  may  be  picked  and  left  to  ripen  in  a 
cool,  dark  place. 

Plums  are  picked  when  they  are  fully  colored  but  still 
firm.  In  the  home  orchard,  they  should  be  left  to  ripen 
on  the  trees.  The  Japanese  varieties  may  be  harvested 
before  they  are  ripe,  as  they  will  color  and  ripen  after 
picking.  During  seasons  when  the  rot  is  serious  the  fruit 
may  be  gathered  slightly  earlier,  although  this  disease 
proves  destructive  even  after  the  fruit  is  picked. 


Fig.   157-       Picking  and  packing  cherries. 


PICKING 


29S 


Sweet  cherries,  when  grown  for  the  market,  are  commonly 
harvested  just  before  they  ripen.  In  the  home  orchard 
they  may  be  left  until  ready  to  eat.  When  the  weather 
is  extremely  warm  and  moist,  it  is  better  to  harvest  the 
fruit  before  it  is  perfectly  ripe  rather  than  to  run  the  risk 
of  destruction  from  rot. 

Peaches  are  of  finest  quality  when  allowed  to  become 
fully  ripe  upon  the  tree,  but  in  the   commercial  orchard 
they    should    be    picked 
when    they    are    of    full 
size,  of  good  color,  and 
show    the   first   signs   of 
ripening.     Fruit  growers 
test  the  ripeness  of  the 
fruit  by  pressing  it  gently 
with    the    ball     of     the 
thumb.    If  it  feels  elastic, 
it     is     ready     to     ship. 
Early  white-flesh  varieties  are  especially  subject  to  rot, 
and  early  picking  of  these  is  often  advisable. 

The  success  of  harvesting  depends  as  much  upon  the 
care  in  picking  as  upon  the  time.  Any  bruise  or  rupture 
of  the  skin  which  softens  the  flesh  causes  the  fruit  to  decay. 
Carelessness  in  picking  often  does  not  become  apparent 
until  the  fruit  ripens.  Fruit  should  not  be  thrown,  tossed, 
or  handled  in  a  careless  manner.  It  should  be  carefully 
picked  by  hand.  Stemmed  fruit  should  be  separated 
from  the  spur  or  branch  by  slightly  twisting  or  bending 
it  upward,  being  careful  to  preserve  a  perfect  stem.  In 
picking  cherries,  grapes,  and  strawberries  the  fruit  should 
not  be  touched,  but  it  should  be  picked  by  the  stem. 
Peaches  are  picked  by  giving  the  fruit  a  slight  twist. 


Fig.  158.  —  Peaches  as  packed  in  New  Jersey 
for  market. 


296  THINNING   AND   HARVESTING   FRUIT 

The  fruit  grower  should  not  allow  pickers  to  climb  the 
trees.  Peaches,  plums,  and  many  of  the  other  trees  should 
be  grown  to  such  a  form  that  the  larger  portion  of  the  crop 
may  be  harvested  from  the  ground.  When  ladders  are 
necessary,  they  should  be  constructed  of  light  durable 
material  and  made  in  such  a  form  as  to  be  most  easily 
handled.  Long  basswood  ladders,  built  in  the  form  of  an 
inverted  V,  are  light  and  may  be  pushed  easily  between 
the  branches.  Stepladders  built  with  a  one-legged  brace 
stand  up  better  on  uneven  ground  than  those  with  two 
legs.  Some  growers  prefer  a  basket  or  pail  as  a  receptacle, 
others  prefer  a  canvas  sack.  There  is  danger  of  bruising 
fruit  by  dropping  it  carelessly  into  the  basket,  while  with 
the  sack,  a  careless  picker  rubs  the  fruit  against  the  ladder. 
Care  should  be  exercised  in  emptying  these  receptacles. 
The  contents  should  not  be  poured  roughly  into  the  box 
or  barrel,  but  the  fruit  should  be  allowed  to  roll  out 
gently. 

Grading.  —  For  the  most  successful  packing  of  fruit 
there  is  nothing  more  essential  than  proper  grading.  Size, 
color,  and  freedom  from  blemish  are  all  essential  in  making 
the  grades.  Large  and  medium  sized  fruit  should  not  be 
placed  in  the  same  package,  or  highly  colored  fruit  with 
that  which  is  poorly  colored.  Although  medium-sized 
fruit  sells  well  when  placed  in  a  package  by  itself,  it  gener- 
ally becomes  second-grade  fruit  when  placed  in  a  package 
with  larger  specimens.  Grading,  therefore,  results  in  getting 
better  prices  for  the  large  fruit  and  just  as  good  prices  for 
that  of  medium  size  as  if  mixed  together. 

The  market  grades  of  fruits  are  variously  designated. 
The  choicest  fruit  is  marked  "  choice,"  "  select/'  or 
"  fancy/'  and  the  second-grade  stock  "  first,"  "  A  i,"  or 


PACKING 


297 


Fig.  159.  —  Packing  apples.     Most  of  the  apples  in  the  Northern  States  are  sorted 
and  packed  in  barrels  in  the  orchard  and  shipped  directly  to  the  cities. 


simply  "  A."  Some  growers  call  their  best  stock  "  3X," 
their  seconds  "  2X,"  and  their  third  "  X."  Others  brand 
their  third  quality  stock  as  "  seconds  "  or  "  A  "  brand. 

Packing.  —  Whatever  form  of  container  is  used  in 
fruit  packing,  it  should  be  clean,  light,  durable,  and 
cheap. 

Apples  are  commonly  packed  in  barrels  and  although 
the  size  of  the  apple  barrel  varies  in  the  several  states,  the 
general  method  of  packing  is  the  same.  The  first  two 
tiers  placed  in  the  barrel  are  faced ;  that  is,  placed  in  regu- 
lar rows  with  the  stems  downward.  These  should  be  of 
uniform  size  and  color  and  typical  of  the  remainder  of  the 
fruit  in  the  barrel.  Starting  on  the  outside  of  the  barrel, 
they  are  placed  in  concentric  rings,  and  those  of  the  second 


298  THINNING  AND   HARVESTING   FRUIT 

tier  are  placed  in  the  depressions  of  those  of  the  first  tier. 
The  fruit  is  then  carefully  placed  in  the  barrel,  shaking 
it  frequently  to  settle  it  well  until  the  barrel  is  filled  to 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  top.  Then  the  top  is  faced  with 
one  or  two  tiers  the  same  as  the  bottom.  The  head  is  placed 
over  the  fruit  and  with  a  barrel  press  it  is  forced  down 
into  place.  The  hoops  are  driven  down  and  nailed. 
Liners  or  cleats  are  then  nailed  down  against  the  inside 
of  the  staves  at  right  angles  to  the  grain  of  the  head  to 
strengthen  it. 

Apples  packed  in  boxes  must  be  sorted  carefully  as  to 
size.  The  method  of  packing  depends  so  much  upon  the 
form  and  size  of  the  fruit  that  it  is  only  by  experience  that 
one  can  tell  the  style  of  pack  best  adapted  to  the  par- 
ticular fruit  at  hand. 

Storing.  —  Only  good  fruit  will  pay  for  storage.  Second- 
grade  stock  seldom  keeps  well.  Wormy,  scabby,  or  care- 
lessly handled  fruit  decays  rapidly.  Fruit  should  be  placed 
in  storage  as  soon  as  possible  after  harvesting.  The  com- 
mon practice  of  allowing  apples  to  lie  on  the  ground  in  the 
orchard  to  sweat  for  a  few  days  after  picking  spoils  their, 
storage  value.  Small  packages,  as  barrels,  crates,  or  boxes, 
are  best  for  storing  fruit,  as  they  can  be  cooled  off  rapidly 
and  will  not  heat  under  such  conditions. 

Fruit  may  be  stored  in  any  building  in  which  the  tem- 
perature, ventilation,  and  moisture  can  be  controlled.  The 
nearer  the  temperature  is  to  freezing,  the  slower  is  the  rip- 
ening process.  Most  fruit  is  stored  at  a  temperature  of 
from  33°  to  35°.  Slight  freezing  will  not  necessarily  injure 
fruit  if  the  temperature  is  raised  slowly,  but  there  is  no 
advantage  in  this  practice.  Fruits  lose  their  quality  if 
the  storage  room  is  not  properly  ventilated.  Good  vend- 


EXERCISES 


299 


B! 


Fig.  160.  —  Apple  storehouse  on  a  Michigan  fruit  farm. 

lation  is  just  as  essential  as  low  temperature.  A  uniform 
amount  of  moisture  also  is  important.  Fruits  decay  rap- 
idly in  damp  air,  while  if  the  air  is  too  dry,  the  fruit  becomes 
withered. 

EXERCISES 

1 .  Is  thinning  practiced  in  your  locality  ? 

2.  Will  the  height  of  the  tree  tops  have  any  bearing  on  the 
advisability  of  thinning  ?     In  what  way  ? 

3.  Explain  why  fruit  picked  green  will   keep   longer   than 
ripened  fruit.     Is  this  fact  made  use  of  in  the  commercial 
markets  ?     In  what  way  ?     In  what   way  does   cold   storage 
promote  the  same  end? 

4.  Why  is  ventilation  necessary  to  stored  fruits? 

5.  What  sort  of  cellar  is  best  fitted  for  fruit  storage?     What 
conditions  of  your  home  cellar  might  be  changed  to  make  it 
conform  to  the  ideal  conditions  for  storage  ? 

6.  Visit  two  or  three  places  in  your  town  where  apples  are 
sold,  and  find  out  what  packages  are  most  used.     On  how 
many  packages    of    fruit    (grapes,  oranges,  lemons,  bananas, 
etc.)  do  you  find  the  label  of  the  packers  or  shippers? 


300  THINNING  AND   HARVESTING   FRUIT 

7.    What  laws  are  there  governing  the  packing  and  labeling 
of  state  and  interstate  shipments  of  apples  ?     Of  other  fruit  ? 

HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Go  to  a  barrel  or  bin  of  apples  in  the  cellar  and  pick 
out  25  specimens  that  have  started  to  decay.     Note  the  num- 
ber of  those  in  which  rot  seems  to  have  started  from  a  bruise 
in  the  skin  inflicted  in  harvesting ;   of  those  in  which  rot  seems 
to  have  started  at  the  stem  where  the  stem  has  been  pulled  out 
in  harvesting ;    of  those  in  which  rot  seems  to  have  started  in 
an  insect  bite  or  worm  hole;    and  those  that  show  no  bruises 
on   the  surface.     Calculate   the  percentage  of  apples  rotting 
from  careless  handling  at  harvesting  time.     What  does  this 
teach  you  regarding  the  care  that  should  be  taken  in  harvesting 
apples  ? 

2.  Take  the  four  trees  that  were  sprayed  as  directed  in  the 
previous  chapter,  and  carry  out  the  following  experiment  with 
them.      Thin  one  to  about  3  inches,  one  to  about  4  inches, 
another  to  5  inches,  leaving  the  last  without  thinning.     Note 
effect  on  size  and  quality  of  fruit. 


CHAPTER   X 
THE    POMES  —  APPLES,    PEARS,    AND    QUINCES 

Apples. --The  apple  is  the  most  important  American 
fruit.  The  wide  variation  in  the  time  of  maturity  of  the 
several  varieties  and  the  long  storage  season  of  the  fruit 
make  the  apple  available  throughout  the  greater  portion 
of  the  year.  Its  easy  transportation  makes  it  the  most 
widely  known  and  most  widely  used  of  all  fruits,  while  the 
productiveness  and  longevity  of  the  trees  make  the  apple 
a  most  profitable  fruit  to  grow. 


Fig.   161.  —  An  apple  tree  that  has  produced  twelve  barrels  of  fruit  in  one  year. 

301 


302  THE  POMES 

Propagation.  —  It  is  commonly  known  that  cultivated 
varieties  of  apples  seldom  come  true  from  seed.  Seedlings 
of  large  red  apples  may  produce  small  yellow  fruit.  The 
fruit  grower  desires  to  know  definitely  the  kind  of  fruit 
that  he  is  to  grow.  To  perpetuate  standard  varieties, 
therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  some  form  of  grafting. 
In  mild  climates  apples  are  usually  propagated  by  budding 
while  in  other  less  favorable  sections  they  are  propagated 
somewhat  more  successfully  by  root  grafting. 


Fig.   162.  —  An  ideal  orchard  site.     The  slope  to  the  lake  provides  good  soil  and  air 

drainage. 

Planting.  —  Apples  are  grown  upon  various  types  of 
soils,  although  a  deep,  open,  well-drained  clay  loam  is  con- 
sidered best.  Orchards  upon  less  favorable  soils  require 
more  careful  management.  When  the  soil  is  of  a  light, 
sandy  nature  the  trees  come  into  bearing  earlier  and  the 
fruit  is  often  more  highly  colored,  but  the  trees  are  seldom 
so  long  lived. 

Apple  trees  are  set  in  the  orchard  at  from  one  to  three 
years  of  age,  the  younger  trees  being  preferred.  The  dis- 
tance of  planting  varies  with  the  variety  and  the  locality. 
Apple  trees  are  usually  planted  from  thirty  to  forty  feet 


PLANTING 


303 


304  THE   POMES 

apart.  The  large-growing  varieties,  like  the  Baldwin  and 
Greening,  require  the  greater  distance.  The  necessity  for 
plenty  of  sunlight  and  air,  for  thorough  cultivation,  and 
for  spraying  makes  wider  plantings  advisable. 

The  planting  is  usually  done  in  the  spring,  especially 
where  winters  are  severe.  In  some  sections  fall  planting 
is  preferred.  When  the  trees  are  set  in  the  fall  on  well 
prepared  and  thoroughly  drained  land,  they  become  estab- 
lished before  winter  sets  in,  and  start  to  grow  in  the  spring 
as  soon  as  weather  conditions  are  favorable.  This  enables 
them  to  produce  a  strong  growth  before  the  hot,  dry  sum- 
mer overtakes  them. 

The  soil  should  be  plowed,  cultivated,  and  prepared  as 
thoroughly  as  for  corn.  If  trees  are  set  in  sod  land  a  hole 
five  feet  in  diameter  should  be  dug  for  each  tree.  No  grass 
should  be  allowed  to  grow  in  this  space  and  it  should  be  kept 
cultivated  or  mulched  with  straw.  On  well-cultivated 
land,  the  holes  are  dug  large  enough  only  to  accommodate 
the  roots;  and  the  trees  are  set  as  directed  in  an  earlier 
chapter.  It  is  better  to  err  in  getting  the  trees  a  little  too 
deep  than  not  deep  enough. 

Varieties.  —  There  is  no  "  best  variety  "  for  all  sections. 
It  is  a  safe  plan  to  select  the  standard  varieties  that  are 
best  adapted  to  each  particular  section.  The  principal 
varieties  grown  in  the  apple-growing  regions  of  America 
include  the  Baldwin,  Northern  Spy,  Greening,  Winesap, 
Jonathan,  Mclntosh,  Grimes  Golden,  Oldenburg,  King, 
Wealthy,  Wagner,  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Spitzenburg,  and 
Tolman  Sweet. 

Cultivation.  —  Cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as  the 
trees  are  planted.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  grow  corn, 
potatoes,  beans,  or  some  other  cultivated  crop  in  the 


PRUNING  305 

orchard  during  the  first  few  years.  Grain  crops,  as  oats, 
wheat,  or  rye,  should  never  be  grown  except  as  cover 
crops ;  and  after  the  trees  come  into  bearing  intercrop- 
ping should  not  be  practiced  as  all  the  moisture  and  food 
of  the  soil  is  required  for  the  best  development  of  the 
fruit. 

Pears.  —  Pears  thrive  in  the  Northeastern  States  and 
along  the  Pacific  slope.  They  succeed  best  in  localities 
characterized  by  moderate  winter  seasons  and  rather  cool, 
moist  summers.  They  grow  well  on  a  variety  of  soils, 
but  prefer  a  rather  stiff  clay  loam. 

Propagation  and  Planting.  —  Pears  are  propagated  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  apples.  They  are  usually 
planted  at  two  years  of  age,  although  some  growers  prefer 
one-year-old  trees.  The  land  should  be  prepared  the  same 
as  for  apples  and  the  trees  planted  in  early  spring.  The 
trees  are  spaced  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  apart  each 
way,  depending  upon  variety,  locality,  and  general  form 
to  be  produced.  Pears  come  into  bearing  earlier  than 
apples  and  produce  paying  crops  in  a  much  shorter 
period.  Although  pears  thrive  best  with  thorough  till- 
age, there  is  much  danger  of  serious  injury  from  blight 
when  too  vigorous  a  growth  is  produced.  The  most 
careful  growers  fertilize  sparingly  and  till  judiciously. 

Pruning.  —  Pears  generally  require  more  pruning  than 
apples.  Most  of  the  varieties  have  a  tendency  to  pro- 
duce all  their  growth  in  the  upper  central  shoots  and  hence 
the  first  few  years  the  pruning  should  consist  in  shorten- 
ing all  of  these  upper  shoots.  Pears  are  very  subject  to 
sun  scald,  and  therefore  the  tops  should  be  started  very 
low,  usually  not  more  than  two  feet  from  the  ground,  and 
should  receive  annual,  but  moderate  pruning.  Heavy 

M.    AND    H.    PLANT   PROD.  —  2O 


306  THE   POMES 

pruning  not  only  invites  sun  scald,  but  tends  to  induce 
too  strong  and  rank  a  growth.  After  the  top  of  the  pear 
tree  is  formed,  it  is  customary  to  do  little  pruning  except 
to  keep  the  top  free  and  open.  As  pears  are  borne  on  spurs 
much  like  the  apple,  it  is  important  in  pruning  that  these 
spurs  are  not  removed  unless  it  is  desired  to  thin  the 
fruit. 

Varieties.  —  Many  pears  produce  infertile  blossoms, 
that  is,  they  need  the  pollen  of  other  varieties  to  cause 
them  to  set  fruit.  In  planting  a  pear  orchard,  it  is,  there- 
fore, customary  to  plant  not  more  than  four  consecutive 
rows  of  one  variety  and  to  alternate  with  one  or  more  rows 
of  another  variety  that  blossoms  at  the  same  time  and 
produces  an  abundant  supply  of  pollen.  Some  of  the  more 
important  commercial  varieties  of  pears  are  the  Bartlett, 
Flemish  Beauty,  Clapp,  Anjou,  Bosc,  Kieffer,  Sheldon, 
Seckel,  and  Le  Conte.  Of  these  varieties,  the  Bartlett  is 
the  leading  market  pear,  while  the  Kieffer  being  less  sus- 
ceptible to  blight  than  most  others,  is  used  principally  as 
a  canning  pear. 

Quinces.  --  The  quince  is  a  fruit  of  comparatively  little 
commercial  importance.  The  fruit  is  used  largely  for 
preserving,  for  marmalades,  for  jellies,  and  for  flavoring 
sauces  made  from  other  fruits.  Its  culture  has  reached 
its  highest  development  in  the  Northeastern  States  and  on 
the  Pacific  coast. 

Enemies  of  the  Pomes. — The  principal  insects  that 
injure  the  pome  fruits  are  the  codling  moth,  San  Jose  scale, 
apple  maggot,  and  apple  curculio.  Those  that  injure  the 
foliage  are  the  tent  caterpillar,  cankerworm,  web  worm, 
plant  lice,  and  leaf  rollers.  Those  injuring  the  trunk  and 
branches  are  the  San  Jose  scale  and  apple  tree  borers. 


ENEMIES   OF  THE   POMES 


307 


3o8 


THE   POMES 


Among  the  common  diseases  of  the  pomes,  the  apple 
scab,  bitter  rot,  brown  rot,  and  pink  rot  affect  the  fruit, 
while  the  apple  scab  and  fire  blight  injure  the  foliage  and 
young  twigs.  There  are  also  various  forms  of  cankers 
that  injure  the  branches.  The  most  serious  disease  of 
the  pear  is  the  fire  blight. 

Spraying.  —  Although  the  insects  and  diseases  of  the 
apple  and  pear  vary  with  the  locality  they  can  be  controlled 
by  spraying  as  outlined  in  the  chapter  on  Fruit  Pests. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Why   are   younger   trees   better   for   transplanting   than 
older   ones?     What   is   the  function   of   the   root   hairs?     In 
what  way  is  this  related  to  transplanting? 

2.  Name   the   best   summer,   fall,   and   winter   varieties   of 
apples  growing  in  your  section. 

3.  Obtain   specimens   of   five   different    varieties   of   apples 
grown  in  your  locality.     If  possible  get  three  apples  of  each 
variety    and    make    observations    of     the    points    indicated 
below. 


VARIETY 

NUMBER  OF 
SPECIMENS 

COLOR 

FORM 

AVERAGE 
CIRCUM- 
FERENCE 

QUALITY 

VALUE 

4.  Obtain  a  branch  from  an  apple  tree  and  draw  to  natural 
size.     Label  the  annual  rings,  fruit  spur,  fruit  scar,  fruit  bud, 
leaf  bud,  and  leaf  scar.     Show  with  a  dotted  line  where  the  twig 
should  be  cut  to  form  a  scion. 

5.  Obtain  three  or  four  plates  of  apples  of  five  specimens 
each,  and  score  according  to  the  following  score  card. 


HOME  PROJECT  309 

SCORE   CARD 
Form 

Characteristic  of  variety 5 

Uniformity  in  form 10 

Size 

Good  for  variety 10 

Uniformity  in  size 15 

Color 

Good  for  variety 10 

Uniformity  in  color 20 

Freedom  from  blemish,  worm  holes,  scab,  San  Jose  scale, 

mechanical  bruises,  broken  stem 30 

Total ioo 

HOME   PROJECT 

Make  an  orchard  survey  of  the  varieties  of  apples  grown  in 
your  section,  by  visiting  at  least  six  bearing  orchards.  Tabu- 
late observations  as  directed  by  teacher.  Judging  from  the 
results  of  this  survey,  what  do  you  conclude  are  the  best  va- 
rieties for  your  section? 


CHAPTER  XI 

STONE    FRUITS  —  PEACHES,    PLUMS,    AND 
CHERRIES 

Peaches.  --The  production  of  peaches  is  attended  with 
greater  risk  than  that  of  most  other  fruits.  The  peach 
is  tender  in  bud  and  therefore  very  susceptible  to  severe 
freezing  during  the  winter  and  to  late  freezes  following  a 
prolonged  warm  spell  in  the  early  spring.  Late  frosts  while 
the  trees  are  in  blossom  ruin  many  crops.  In  the  Northern 
States  the  peach-growing  areas  lie  near  large  bodies  of 
water  where  the  temperature  is  considerably  moderated 
by  the  water. 

It  is  important  to  select  sites  that  have  good  soil  drain- 
age and  air  drainage.  On  high  ridges,  ideal  sites  are  found. 
Usually  a  sandy  loam  soil  is  desired,  although  excellent 
crops  are  also  produced  upon  clay  soils.  A  clover  sod 
that  has  been  previously  manured  and  plowed  under  is 
good  for  a  peach  orchard.  The  trees  should  be  planted 
early  in  the  spring  rather  than  in  the  fall,  as  there  is  danger 
of  winter  injury  to  fall  plantings.  The  trees  are  set  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  apart  and  even  at  this  distance 
heading  in  and  shortening  the  branches  is  frequently  neces- 
sary, after  the  trees  come  into  bearing,  to  permit  space  for 
spraying,  cultivation,  and  maintaining  the  orchard. 

Planting. -- The  following  general  rules  should  be  ob- 
served in  planting  peach  trees : 

T.    Preserve  as  many  of  the  fibrous  roots  as  possible. 

310 


PRUNING 


3** 


2.  Expose  the  roots  as  little  as  possible  to  the  drying 
influences  of  the  sun  and  wind. 

3.  Prepare  the  roots  for  planting  by  cutting  away  the 
bruised  and  broken  portions. 

4.  Plant  an  inch  or  two  deeper  than  the  tree  stood  in 
the  nursery.     If  the  soil  is  very  sandy,  the  tree  may  be 
planted  three  or  four  inches  deeper. 

5.  Dig  the  hole  in  which  the  tree  is  to  be  planted  deep 
enough  to  receive  two  or  three  inches  of  fine  soil  before 
putting  the  tree  in  place,  and  make  it  large  enough  to  allow 
the   roots    to    spread   in    their   natural   position   without 
crowding. 

6.  See  that  good  friable  surface  soil  is  well  packed  be- 
neath and  over  the  roots. 

Pruning.  —  After  planting,  peaches  should  be  pruned  to 
reestablish  the  natural  balance  between  the  top  and  root 
system  and  to  form  a  well-shaped  tree.  The  spur  and  the 


Fig.  165.  —  Peach  trees  with  high  tops  ;  result  of  setting  trees  too  close  together. 


3I2 


STONE    FRUITS 


Fig.   166.  —  A  fine  example  of  a  low-headed  peach  tree. 

stub  systems  are  the  two  principal  methods  of  pruning 
peach  trees.  If  the  lateral  branches  are  well  distributed 
along  the  trunk  at  the  desired  height,  the  spur  system  is 
used.  Otherwise  the  tree  is  pruned  to  a  stub  and  a  new 
top  formed. 

Pruning  is  practiced  annually  thereafter  by  removing  all 
the  weaker  shoots,  pruning  out  the  central  branches  to 
maintain  an  open  center,  and  frequently  cutting  back 
from  a  third  to  a  half  of  the  growth  of  the  remaining 
branches.  The  degree  of  heading  back  depends  largely 
upon  the  variety,  vigor,  and  productiveness  of  the  tree. 

Cultivation.  —  Peaches  need  even  more  thorough  and 
regular  cultivation  than  apples.  After  the  trees  come 
into  bearing,  they  require  abundant  fertilizers.  Cover 
cropping  with  leguminous  plants  is  advantageous,  as  it 
causes  the  tree  to  mature  its  wood  for  the  winter  and 
supplies  organic  matter  to  the  soil. 

Peaches  have  a  tendency  to  produce  excessive  crops. 
These  crops,  if  allowed  to  mature  on  the  tree,  frequently 
break  the  branches  and  seldom  produce  individual  fruits  of 
sufficient  size  to  satisfy  a  first-class  market.  Pruning  is 


VARIETIES 


313 


frequently  practiced  as  a  thinning  process,  but  in  addition 
to  this,  hand  thinning  is  often  necessary. 

Varieties.  — The  Elberta  is  the  standard  market  variety 
in  most  of  the  Northern  States.  Its  productiveness,  hardi- 
ness, and  general  characteristics  make  it  a  most  profitable 
commercial  variety.  St.  Johns,  New  Prolific,  Triumph, 
Engle's  Mammoth,  Alexander,  Greensborough,  Gold  Drop, 
Smock,  and  Lemon  Free  are  other  important  varieties. 

Plums.  —  Plums  are  an  important  commercial  fruit, 
especially  in  localities  where  the  climate  is  too  rigorous  for 
peach  production.  Large  quantities  of  plums  are  canned, 
and  in  many  sections  the  fruit  of  one  class  is  dried  for 
prunes.  In  seasons  when  the  peach  crop  is  short,  the  de- 
mand for  plums  is  correspondingly  increased. 

Varieties.  — There  are  probably  more  species  of  plums 
grown  in  this  country  than  of  any  other  fruit.  The  Euro- 
pean plum  is  best  known  in  the  Eastern  States,  although 


Fig.   167.  — A  plum  orchard  on  an  ideal  site.     The  well-cultivated  ground  slopes  off 

to  the  lake. 


314  STONE   FRUITS 

the  Japanese  plums  are  also  widely  grown.  In  sections 
of  the  country  where  the  conditions  are  too  severe  for  either 
the  Japanese  or  European  species,  the  American  or  wild 
plum  proves  very  valuable.  The  Wild  Goose  plum  is  also 
an  important  species,  especially  adapted  to  southern  Iowa, 
Missouri,  southern  Illinois,  and  adjacent  sections.  The 
Chicasaw  plums  are  native  of  the  Southern  States  and  grow 
wild  from  Delaware  south  and  west  to  Kansas  and  Texas. 

Soil  and  Cultural  Conditions. -- The  plum  demands  a 
heavier  soil  than  the  peach ;  usually  a  moderately  heavy 
clay  loam  is  most  desirable.  On  lighter  soils,  the  trees  are 
very  subject  to  injury  from  prolonged  dry  spells  during 
the  summer.  Under  such  conditions  the  fruit  is  small 
and  the  trees  short-lived.  Trees  from  one  to  three  years 
of  age  are  selected  for  planting,  many  planters  preferring 
a  one-year-old  tree,  as  at  that  age  they  are  cheaper,  easier 
to  plant,  and  produce  better  formed  trees.  They  may  be 
set  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five  feet  apart,  depending  much 
upon  the  soil  and  variety.  As  many  of  the  varieties  are 
generally  self-sterile,  especially  in  certain  locations,  it  is 
important  to  interplant  them  with  strong,  pollenizing 
varieties  that  blossom  at  the  same  time.  Even  self- 
fertilizing  varieties  seem  to  produce  better  crops  when 
cross-pollinated. 

With  certain  varieties  of  plums,  thinning  is  very  im- 
portant. It  is  one  method  of  controlling  the  fruit  rot  and 
of  producing  profitable  crops.  Damsons  and  other  small 
plums  are  not  thinned,  but  the  larger  varieties  often  must 
be  thinned  to  produce  large,  highly  colored  fruit.  The 
orchard  should  be  cultivated  and  cover-cropped  as  with 
the  apple  and  peach.  Although  the  plum  will  thrive  better 
in  sod  land  than  the  peach,  better  crops  will  be  produced 


SOIL  AND   CULTURAL  METHODS 


315 


and  less  injury  from  fungous  diseases  will  result  if  the 
orchard  is  kept  in  a  clean,  cultivated  condition. 

Cherries.  —  The  commercial  production  of  cherries  is 
more  restricted  than  that  of  most  other  fruits.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the 
sweet  cherries,  there 
being  but  few  sections 
east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  where 
the  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  are  favor- 
able .  The  production 
of  sour  cherries  has 
become  one  of  the 
leading  industries  in 
the  humid  regions  of 
the  Middle  West. 

Soil  and  Cultural  Methods.  —  Sweet  cherries  thrive  best 
on  an  elevated,  light,  dry,  loamy  soil,  while  the  sour  kinds 
will  endure  more  moist  climatic  conditions  and  a  heavier 
soil. 

Spring  planting  of  trees  is  usually  practiced.  The  sweet 
varieties  are  set  thirty  to  forty  feet  apart  each  way,  while 
the  sour  kinds  are  set  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet.  In 
pruning,  three  to  five  main  branches  about  three  feet  from 
the  ground  are  allowed  to  remain  to  form  the  framework 
of  the  tree.  As  the  sweet  cherries  have  a  very  upright 
habit  of  growth,  it  is  important  to  prune  the  lateral  branches 
back  to  outside  buds  for  a  few  years  to  induce  a  spreading 
rather  than  an  upright  form.  The  framework  branches  of 
the  sour  cherry  are  formed  like  those  of  the  peach  tree. 
Cherries  are  very  subject  to  gummosis,  a  disease  which  is 


Fig.   168.  —  A  well-formed  Windsor  cherry  tree. 


3i6 


STONE    FRUITS 


characterized  by  the  formation  of  large  bunches  of  gum  on 
the  bark.  Trees  that  are  formed  with  the  main  branches 
opposite  or  near  together  on  the  trunk  are  especially  sub- 
ject to  this  disease. 

Cherry  orchards  are  plowed  shallow  in  the  early  spring 
and  cultivated  every  ten  days  or  after  every  rain  until 

midsummer,  when  they 
are  seeded  to  cover  crops. 
With  sweet  cherries, 
there  is  danger  of  over- 
feeding, as  the  tree  nat- 
urally produces  a  very 
rank  growth.  Hence  it 
is  often  better  to  grow  a 
cover  crop  of  non-legumi- 
nous plants  and  to  with- 

Fig.   169.  —  A  steep  slope  utilized  as  a  cherry 

orchard.     Note  the  furrows  to  prevent  soil      hold       nitrO^enOUS       ma- 
wash. 

nures. 

Harvesting.  —  Cherries  should  be  hand  picked  a  few 
days  before  ripening.  Special  shears  are  sometimes  used 
for  cutting  the  stems,  the  fruit  being  allowed  to  drop  on 
sheets  which  have  been  previously  spread  under  the  tree. 
With  the  finer  varieties  more  care  should  be  exercised. 
All  small  and  imperfect  fruits  should  be  sorted  out  and 
the  cherries  faced  and  packed  into  small  attractive  boxes 
or  baskets.  Small  cartons  holding  a  pound  or  more  of 
fruit  are  often  used  in  preparing  fancy  packages  for  special 
markets.  Care  should  be  exercised  against  breaking  the 
fruit  spurs,  as  a  careless  picker  may,  in  this  way,  do  much 
injury  to  the  next  year's  crop. 

Insects  and  Diseases.-  The  stone  fruits  are  very  sus- 
ceptible to  injury  from  insects  and  diseases.  The  peach 


EXERCISES  317 

tree  borer,  San  Jose  scale,  plum  curculio,  aphis,  and  tent 
caterpillar  are  the  most  common  insects,  while  peach 
yellows,  u  little  peach/'  brown  rot,  leaf  curl,  black  knot, 
peach  scab,  and  shot-hole  fungus  are  the  most  important 
diseases  of  these  fruits. 

In  controlling  these  insects  and  diseases,  the  trees  should 
be  sprayed  as  directed  in  a  previous  chapter.  Early  in  the 
spring  the  trees  should  be  carefully  inspected  and  all 
black  knots  should  be  cut  out  several  inches  below  the 
knots. 

EXERCISES 

1 .  To  what  class  of  fruits  does  the  peach  belong  ? 

2.  Can  peaches  be  profitably  grown  in  your  section ?     Why? 

3.  How  long  does  it  take  a  peach  tree  to  come  into  bearing 
after  planting? 

4.  If  peaches  are  grown  in  your  section,  name  some  of  the 
best  varieties. 

5.  Obtain  two  or  three   quarts  of  peach  pits  and  arrange 
in  a  box  in  alternate  layers  of  pits  and  clean  sand  so  as  to  show 
how  they  are  stratified  in  actual  practice.     Remove  the  pits 
'and  save  them  for  further  work. 

6.  Get  twigs  of  two  different  varieties  of  plums,  preferably 
two  varieties  growing  in  your  neighborhood.     Take  from  the 
twigs  one  flower  bud  and  one  leaf  bud.     Pick  them  to  pieces. 
By  close  examination  determine  how  to  distinguish  a  flower  bud 
from  a  leaf  bud. 

7.  Obtain,   if    possible,    specimens   of    the   plum   curculio. 
Note  the  six  humps  on  the  back,  four  real  humps  and  two  semi- 
humps.     Note  also  the  snout  of  this  beetle. 

8.  Examine  plums  or  apples  for  puncture  of  the  plum  cur- 
culio.    Note  the  dot  and  the  crescent  around  it. 

9.  If  there  are  cherry  orchards  in  your  home  locality,  de- 
scribe the  methods  of  orchard  management. 


318  STONE   FRUITS 

HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Visit  four  commercial  peach  orchards  and  note  in  each  : 

(a)  The  number  of  trees  of  each  variety  in  each  orchard. 

(b)  Age  and  condition  of  each  orchard. 

(c)  System  of  culture. 

(d)  Method  of  pruning. 

(e)  Materials  and  times  of  spraying. 

(/)  Number  of  trees  infected  with  borers. 
(g)  Number  showing  signs  of  peach  yellows,  "  little  peach/' 
leaf  curl,  or  other  diseases. 

(ti)  Number  in  which  the  fruit  is  hand  thinned. 
(i)  Cover  crop  used. 

2.  With  four  bearing  plum  trees  of  the  same  variety,  age, 
and  general  conditions,  test  the  value  of  pruning,  thinning,  and 
spraying. 


CHAPTER  XII 
GRAPES,    STRAWBERRIES,    AND    BUSH   FRUITS 

Grapes.  —  Although  grapes  may  be  grown  on  favored 
sites  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  there  are  only  a 
few  sections  of  the  country  where  their  production  has 
developed  into  a  leading  industry.  The  Northeastern 
States  and  the  Pacific  States  are  the  two  most  important 
grape-growing  sections.  Most  of  the  leading  commercial 
varieties  of  the  Northeastern  States  are  of  the  native 
species.  West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  varieties  of  the 
European  species  are  chiefly  grown. 

Propagation.  --The  grape  is  generally  propagated  from 
either  hardwood  cuttings  or  layers.  In  California,  Euro- 
pean varieties  are  often  grafted  upon  American  roots. 
One-year  or  two-year-old  plants  from  cuttings  are  used  for 
setting  the  vineyard.  Where  only  a  few  plants  are  desired, 
layering  is  the  simplest  and  easiest  method  of  producing 
new  plants. 

Soil  and  Cultural  Methods.  —  Grapes  demand  a  long 
season  for  the  development  of  the  crop.  The  vines  blossom 
early  in  the  spring  and  the  fruit  ripens  comparatively  late 
in  the  fall.  Hence,  it  is  desirable  to  select  a  piece  of  land 
for  the  vineyard  that  has  sufficient  slope  to  provide  good 
air  and  soil  drainage  and  that  is  subject  to  neither  late  frosts 
nor  early  freezes.  For  these  reasons,  a  sloping  site  exposed 
to  the  south  and  east  is  preferred.  In  sections  bordering 
large  bodies  of  water  that  exercise  a  moderating  influence 

319 


320          GRAPES,    STRAWBERRIES,    BUSH    FRUITS 


upon  the  climate,  exposure  is  not  so  important.  For  grapes, 
the  ideal  soil  is  a  sandy  loam  with  an  open  clay  subsoil, 
but  they  may  be  grown  upon  any  soil  of  moderate  fertility 
and  fair  texture  having  good  drainage.  On  soil  that  is 
too  rich  in  nitrogen,  the  fruit  is  likely  to  be  of  poor  flavor 
and  the  vines  unproductive. 

Grapes  are  planted  in  the  spring  in  rows  about  ten  feet 
apart  and  the  vines  eight  to  ten  feet  apart  in  the  row,  de- 
pending much  upon  the  vigor  of  the  variety.  The  land, 
after  being  plowed  and  cultivated,  is  furrowed  out  one 

way  and  marked  the 
other,  the  intersection 
showing  the  position 
of  each  plant.  This 
greatly  facilitates  the 
planting.  The  roots 
of  the  plants  may  be 
cut  back  to  twelve 
inches  in  length  and  the  tops  pruned  back  to  two  or 
three  buds.  As  soon  as  the  vines  are  planted,  the  vine- 
yard should  be  cultivated  and  some  hoed  crop  grown  for 
the  first  few  years.  After  this  time,  the  plants  will  require 
the  entire  space  and  the  vineyard  should  be  regularly 
cultivated  and  cover  cropped. 

Pruning.  —  Pruning  is  performed  to  get  the  most  high- 
grade  fruit  from  the  least  amount  of  vine  and  to  maintain 
the  plant  so  that  profitable  crops  may  be  produced  for 
many  years.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  old  wood 
that  has  once  borne  fruit  never  bears  again,  and  that  if 
all  the  new  wood  produced  on  the  vines  is  left,  it  will  bear 
a  great  many  more  clusters  than  it  can  properly  develop. 
Pruning  is  practiced  as  a  thinning  process,  thus  concen- 


Fig.  170.  —  A  pruned  grape  vine  (A),  and  an 
unpruned  vine  (B). 


PRUNING 


321 


Fig.  171.  -  A  California  vineyard.      Note  the  trays  on  which  the  grapes  are  placed  t 
they  are  gathered. 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. 21 


322          GRAPES,   STRAWBERRIES,   BUSH   FRUITS 

trating  the  energy  of  the  plant  into  a  few  well-developed 
clusters.  The  fruit  of  the  grape  is  borne  upon  canes  of  the 
present  season's  growth,  which  are  produced  from  buds 
on  canes  of  the  past  season's  growth.  The  spur  system, 
which  simply  consists  in  the  pruning  back  of  each  cane  of 
the  past  season's  growth  to  one  or  two  buds,  is  the  simplest 
system  and  probably  the  most  common  method  of  pruning. 

The  renewal  system  is  generally  practiced  by  the  com- 
mercial growers  of  our  native  species.  Four  of  the  past 
year's  canes  are  retained.  Each  of  these  is  pruned  part 
way  back,  leaving  from  six  to  ten  buds  on  each.  Two 
of  these  are  trained  upon  the  upper  wire  about  five  feet 
from  the  ground  and  two  upon  the  lower  about  three  feet 
from  the  ground.  The  buds  upon  these  canes  produce  the 
new  shoots  that  bear  the  fruit. 

The  grape  should  be  pruned  either  during  the  late  winter 
or  very  early  spring,  as  injury  may  be  caused  by  pruning 
in  late  spring  after  the  sap  has  begun  to  flow.  Some- 
times summer  pruning  is  practiced,  which  consists  in  cutting 
back  some  of  the  most  vigorous  canes,  rubbing  off  all 
suckers  that  have  started  from  the  base  of  the  roots, 
and  pinching  off  the  side  shoots  of  the  canes  that  are  to 
be  reserved  for  the  following  year. 

Insects  and  Diseases.  --  The  black  rot  is  the  most 
serious  fungous  disease  of  the  grape,  although  the  downy 
mildew  and  the  powdery  mildew  are  also  often  injurious. 
The  grape  cane  borer,  the  flea  beetle,  the  rose  chafer,  the 
grape  berry  moth,  the  leaf  hopper,  and  the  phylloxera,  or 
root  louse,  are  destructive  insects  of  this  fruit. 

The  grape  rot  appears  as  brown,  circular,  decayed  spots 
on  the  berries,  which  soon  spread  over  the  entire  fruit. 
Infected  berries  soon  shrivel  and  turn  black.  The  downy 


SPRAYING  323 

mildew  is  a  fungous  disease  causing  brownish  white  patches 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves.  It  sometimes  attacks 
the  fruit  as  does  the  black  rot,  but  the  infected  fruit  turns 
red  rather  than  black.  Delaware  and  other  hybrid  varie- 
ties are  most  susceptible  to  the  mildew.  The  powdery 
mildew  is  most  common  in  hot,  dry  weather,  covering  the 
surfaces  of  the  leaves  or  fruit  and  giving  them  a  gray  or 
powdery  appearance. 

The  phylloxera,  or  root  louse,  is  not  a  serious  insect  on 
the  American  varieties,  but  upon  the  European  varieties 
it  is  one  of  the  most  dreaded  and  destructive  of  all  insects. 
Grafting  these  varieties  on  our  native  stocks  is  the  best 
preventive.  Sometimes  the  grape  cane  borer  proves  very 
destructive,  attacking  the  young  shoots  in  the  spring  and 
causing  them  to  droop  suddenly  or  break  off  entirely.  To 
control  this  insect,  all  diseased  wood  and  prunings  should 
be  promptly  burned.  Injured  shoots  should  also  be  cut 
off  and  burned  at  once.  The  rose  chafer  and  leaf  hopper 
are  the  most  difficult  insects  to  control  upon  the  grape. 
Spraying  with  tobacco  extracts  is  probably  the  most  effi- 
cacious remedy.  Clean  cultivation  and  the  destruction  of 
all  leaves,  grass,  and  other  debris  in  the  neighborhood  that 
might  make  a  harboring  place  over  winter  for  these  insects 
will  help  to  prevent  them.  The  leaf  hopper  feeds  early  in  the 
season  upon  the  strawberry  and  bush  fruits,  hence  these 
fruits  should  be  grown  some  distance  from  the  vineyard. 

Spraying.  —  If  fruit  free  from  rot,  mildew,  and  other 
fungous  diseases  is  desired,  spraying  must  be  practiced 
regularly.  When  the  shoots  are  from  eight  to  ten  inches 
long  the  vines  should  be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
to  prevent  the  black  rot  and  downy  mildew.  The  vines 
should  be  sprayed  again,  just  before  the  blossoms  open,  with 


324          GRAPES,    STRAWBERRIES,    BUSH    FRUITS 

the  same  mixture,  to  which  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead 
has  been  added  to  poison  the  grape  berry  moth.  The 
third  spraying  should  be  applied  just  as  the  blossoms  are 
falling,  and  another  about  two  weeks  later.  It  may  be 
necessary  to  make  another  spraying  later  with  the  same 
mixture.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  spray  after  this  time 
to  control  the  rot,  weak  copper  sulphate  should  be  used  in 
preference  to  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  as  the  latter  will  stain 
the  fruit. 

Strawberries. -- The  strawberry  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  of  American  fruits  and  hence  the  supply  is  seldom 
equal  to  the  demand.  Strawberries  are  propagated  by  the 
separation  of  runners  produced  by  the  plants.  New  varie- 
ties are  produced  from  seedlings,  but  it  is  seldom  that  new 
seedlings  prove  of  superior  value  to  the  standard  varieties. 
Most  varieties  produce  an  abundance  of  runners  which  are 
attached  to  the  old  plant  the  first  season.  These  are  the 
plants  that  should  be  selected  for  setting  a  new  patch. 
Old  plants  are  not  desirable. 

Soil  and  Cultural  Methods.  —  Strawberries  may  be 
grown  successfully  on  almost  any  soil.  A  sandy  loam  soil 
is  preferred,  but  good  crops  are  produced  upon  any  soil 
that  is  good  enough  for  corn.  For  early  fruit,  a  southern 
slope  is  best,  but  a  northern  slope  is  most  desirable,  as  this 
plant  requires  cool,  moist  conditions  for  its  best  develop- 
ment. For  this  reason,  also,  strawberries  should  be  planted 
very  early  in  the  spring,  so  that  the  cool,  moist  weather 
may  encourage  a  strong  development  of  the  plant  before 
the  warm,  dry  period  of  midsummer  overtakes  them.  Sod 
land  should  be  avoided,  as  the  white  grubs,  so  destructive 
to  strawberry  plants,  are  most  prevalent  there.  The  plants 
are  usually  dug  just  before  setting  and  the  older  and  dis- 


SOIL   AND    CULTURAL   METHODS 


325 


eased  leaves  removed.  It  is  important,  in  transplanting, 
to  shield  the  roots  from  the  sun  and  wind,  hence  they  are 
usually  carried  in  a  pail  of  water  or  in  a  basket  covered 
with  moist  cloth. 

If  the  strawberry  plant  is  set  too  deep,  the  soil  washes 
over  the  crown  and  kills  it,  while  if  set  too  shallow,  the  soil 
will  soon  settle  away  from  the  roots,  leaving  many  of  them 
exposed  to  the  sun.  If  the  soil  is  light  and  sandy,  there  is 


Fig.   172.  —  Strawberries  planted  between  the  rows  in  a  young  orchard. 

less  danger  in  planting  too  deep,  but  even  under  these  con- 
ditions it  is  better  to  set  the  plant  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  crown  will  be  level  with  the  top  of  the  soil  after  it  has 
settled. 

There  are  several  systems  of  training  strawberries.  The 
system  used  will  depend  much  upon  the  variety  and  de- 
mands of  the  market.  The  matted-row  system  is  the 
most  common.  Here  the  plants  are  set  about  eighteen 
inches  apart  in  the  rows  with  the  rows  three  to  four  feet 
apart.  The  new  runners  are  allowed  to  set  wherever  they 


326         GRAPES,   STRAWBERRIES,   BUSH   FRUITS 

will,  with  the  result  that  at  the  end  of  the  first  season, 
nearly  all  the  space  between  the  rows  is  covered  with  plants. 


Fig.   173.  —  An  excellent  stand  of  strawberry  plants  on  the  matted-row  system. 

Under  this  system  the  production  is  usually  the  heaviest, 
and  less  care  is  demanded  in  training  and  caring  for  the 
plants. 

The  hedge  system  is  often  most  desirable  where  a  special 
market  is  at  hand  and  good  prices  may  be  obtained  for 
first-class  berries.  The  fruit  is  usually  larger  and  more 
uniform  in  size  although  not  so  many  quarts  are  produced 
per  acre.  Greater  care  is  also  necessary  in  training  the 
plants.  In  starting  this  system  the  plants  are  set  in  rows 
about  two  and  a  half  feet  apart  and  the  plants  eighteen 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Each  plant  is  then  allowed  to 
produce  two  runners,  one  each  way  of  the  row.  All  other 
runners  are  cut  away.  Sometimes  a  double-hedge  system 
is  used,  which  increases  the  production  per  acre.  Here 
two  such  rows  are  planted  six  to  ten  inches  apart  and  with 
a  space  of  two  and  a  half  feet  between  each  double  row. 


CULTIVATION  327 

Sometimes  strawberries  are  grown  on  the  hill  system. 
The  plants  are  set  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  apart  each 
way  and  no  runners  are  allowed  to  set  about  the  plants. 
They  may  then  be  cultivated  each  way,  and  strong,  vigor- 
ous crowns  will  be  produced.  Under  this  system,  the  largest 
and  finest  berries  may  be  produced,  but  the  production  is 
so  much  smaller  on  any  given  area  that  it  seldom  proves  a 
desirable  commercial  system. 

Cultivation.  --The  strawberry  is  a  very  shallow-rooted 
plant,  and  since  it  thrives  under  cool,  moist  conditions, 
frequent  shallow  cultivations  are  required.  When  the 
plants  are  set  on  the  matted-row  system,  it  is  advisable  to 
cultivate  each  row  always  in  the  same  direction.  If  not, 
the  runners  will  be  disturbed  by  the  cultivator.  Cultiva- 
tion must  be  continued  until  late  fall,  as  the  growth  is  very 
rapid  and  runners  are  produced  very  heavily  during  the 
late  summer  and  fall.  It  is  quite  necessary  that  the  patch 
be  absolutely  free  from  weeds  when  freezing  weather 
finally  stops  the  growth. 

Strawberries  are  generally  mulched,  in  late  fall  or  early 
winter  after  the  ground  has  frozen,  with  clean  straw  free 
from  weed  seeds,  or  with  marsh  hay.  This  prevents  the 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing  during  late  winter  and  early 
spring  which  tears  the  roots  and  kills  the  plants.  This 
mulch  is  left  on  the  patch  until  after  the  harvesting  season, 
^thus  taking  the  place  of  cultivation  the  following  spring. 
Generally,  it  is  the  practice  of  the  growers  to  remove  the 
straw  slightly  from  the  tops  of  the  plants  as  soon  as  the 
growth  begins  in  the  spring.  During  the  harvesting  period, 
the  straw  about  the  base  of  the  plants  keeps  the  fruit  clean 
and  free  from  grit. 

Where  strawberries  are  grown  on  a  commercial  scale, 


328          GRAPES,   STRAWBERRIES,   BUSH   FRUITS 

the  patch  is  plowed  under  immediately  after  harvesting 
and  a  new  plantation  is  set  out  each  spring.  Sometimes  a 
patch  is  allowed  to  bear  for  two  seasons,  but  the  produc- 
tion is  not  so  heavy  the  second  year. 

In  fertilizing  a  strawberry  patch,  it  is  a  practice  to  manure 
the  field  heavily  the  year  before  setting,  growing  some  hoed 
crop.  If  additional  fertilizing  is  necessary,  commercial 
fertilizers  are  used  at  the  time  of  planting.  The  following 
spring,  shortly  after  the  growth  starts,  nitrate  of  soda  is 
applied  at  the  rate  of  about  150  pounds  per  acre.  This 
should  be  broadcasted  while  the  foliage  is  dry  to  prevent 
burning.  An  ideal  time  to  apply  it  is  just  before  a  rain. 
If  the  plants  need  a  stimulus  later  in  the  season  just 
before  fruiting,  a  similar  application  should  be  given. 

Varieties.  —  In  selecting  varieties  of  strawberries,  it  is 
necessary  to  remember  that  some  varieties  are  pistillate; 
that  is,  they  have  no  well-developed  stamens  and  so  are 
unable  to  pollenize  themselves.  These  varieties,  if  planted 
alone,  will  seldom  be  fruitful.  Pistillate  varieties  are  often 
called  imperfect  varieties,  while  those  varieties  having  strong 
stamens  are  called  perfect  or  staminate  varieties.  In  set- 
ting strawberries,  it  is  the  practice  to  set  at  least  one  row 
of  a  perfect  sort  to  two  rows  of  an  imperfect  sort.  It  is 
necessary,  of  course,  that  the  two  varieties  blossom  at  the 
same  time,  so  that  the  pollen  of  a  perfect  sort  may  be 
available  when  the  imperfect  varieties  are  in  blossom. 
Perfect-flowering  varieties,  of  course,  may  be  planted 
alone. 

Insects  and  Diseases.  —  Strawberries  are  seldom  troubled 
seriously  by  insects  and  diseases.  By  care  in  the  selection 
of  varieties,  by  rotation,  and  by  good  culture  serious  injury 
may  be  avoided.  Leaf  spot  and  mildew  are  the  two 


SOIL  AND   CULTURAL  METHODS 


329 


chief  fungous  diseases,  while  the  white  grub,  leaf  roller,  and 
strawberry  root  louse  are  the  principal  injurious  insects. 

Bush  Fruits.  —  The  bush  fruits  include  the  currants, 
gooseberries,  blackberries,  raspberries,  and  dewberries. 
They  are  more  easily  grown  than  most  of  the  tree  fruits 
and  give  greater  yields  and  quicker  returns.  As  the  de- 


Fig.  174.  —  Spraying  strawberries. 

mand  for  fresh  bush  fruits  in  the  local  markets  is  usually 
greater  than  the  supply,  they  are  profitable  crops  for  the 
fruit  grower.  • 

Soil  and  Cultural  Methods  for  Currants  and  Goose- 
berries. —  The  ideal  soil  for  currants  and  gooseberries  is  a 
rich,  moist,  rather  heavy  soil,  although  in  the  Northern 
States  good  yields  are  grown  on  lighter  soils.  There  are 
probably  no  cultivated  crops  that  respond  more  generously 
to  manuring  than  these  fruits.  Much  humus  in  the  soil 
furnishes  the  richness,  coolness,  and  moisture  that  they 
require. 


330         GRAPES,   STRAWBERRIES,   BUSH   FRUITS 


Except  in  localities  where  the  winters  are  very  severe, 
fall  planting  is  generally  preferred.  The  plants  then  take 
hold  early  in  the  spring  and  become  well  established  before 
the  hot  weather.  If  planted  in  the  spring,  they  should  be 
set  out  as  early  as  possible. 

Currants  and  gooseberries  are  generally  propagated  by 
hardwood  cuttings  taken  in  late  fall  or  early  winter.  One- 
year  and  two-year- 
old  plants  are  used 
for  setting.  Some- 
times they  are  prop- 
agated by  mound 
layering,  but  they 
root  so  readily  from 
cuttings  that  layer- 
ing is  seldom  prac- 
ticed. 

Currants  are  usu- 
ally set  four  to  six 
feet  apart  in  the  row 
with  the  rows  from 
four  to  eight  feet 
apart.  Black  cur- 
rants, being  larger 
plants,  require  more 
space  than  red  or  white  currants  or  gooseberries.  As  these 
plants  are  all  shallow  rooted,  shallow  cultivation  should 
be  given.  It  is  necessary  to  cultivate  regularly  to  pre- 
serve soil  moisture. 

Pruning.  —  After  the  plants  are  set,  little  pruning  is 
required  during  the  first  three  seasons,  except  to  thin  out 
weak  and  crowding  shoots  and  to  head  back  over- vigorous 


Fig.   175.        Harvesting  currants.       Note  crate  and 
boxes  used  for  shipping. 


HARVESTING 


331 


ones.  After  this  time,  pruning  should  consist  in  cutting 
away  a  few  of  the  oldest  canes  at  the  base  each  year,  leav- 
ing a  few  of  the  vigorous  young  shoots  from  the  roots  to 


Fig.   176.  —  A  well-kept  gooseberry  patch. 

take  their  places.  The  largest  bunches  of  currants  are 
grown  at  the  base  of  one-year-old  lateral  shoots  or  on 
one-year-old  spurs.  Therefore,  to  get  the  highest  quality 
of  fruit,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  up  a  continuous  supply  of 
these  vigorous  shoots.  The  common  mistake  in  pruning 
currants  and  gooseberries  is  to  let  the  bushes  remain  too 
thick. 

Fertilizers.  —  Well-decomposed  stable  manure  is  the  most 
popular  fertilizer  for  these  fruits.  This  may  be  spread 
around  the  bushes  in  the  fall  and  worked  into  the  soil  in 
the  spring.  Unleached  hardwood  ashes  are  valuable, 
especially  upon  the  stronger  soils  on  which  heavy  applica- 
tions of  manure  would  tend  to  produce  too  much  wood. 

Harvesting.  —  Gooseberries  and  currants  have  a  long 
harvesting  season.  The  fruit  may  remain  on  the  bushes 


332         GRAPES,   STRAWBERRIES,   BUSH   FRUITS 

for  several  days  without  injury.  Currants  are  usually 
picked  by  pinching  off  the  bunches,  keeping  the  berries 
perfect  on  the  stems.  Gooseberries  are  harvested  by 
stripping  the  branches  and  afterwards  running  the  fruit 
through  a  fanning  machine  to  remove  the  leaves. 

Insects  and  Diseases. -- The  gooseberry  mildew  and 
leaf  spot  are  two  common  fungous  diseases,  while  the  cur- 
rant worm,  the  currant  borer,  and  the  San  Jose  scale  are 
the  most  injurious  insects. 

The  gooseberry  mildew  is  especially  troublesome  upon 
the  English  varieties  of  gooseberries  and  is  more  prevalent 
in  sections  having  a  hot,  dry  climate.  It  appears  as  a  cob- 
weblike  growth  on  the  young  foliage,  killing  or  checking 
its  growth.  The  leaf  spot  appears  as  small  brown  spots 
that  cause  the  leaves  to  turn  yellow  and  drop.  The 
bushes  are  often  defoliated  in  midsummer  by  this  disease, 
which  seriously  weakens  the  plant  and  prevents  the  for- 
mation of  well-developed  fruit  buds  for  the  following  season. 

The  small  green  worms  found  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves  of  the  currants  are  hatched  from  eggs  laid  by  a  small 
fly  about  the  size  of  a  house  fly.  The  worms  are  first  white, 
later  becoming  green  with  black  spots,  and  finally  becoming 
green  tinged  with  yellow.  They  eat  the  leaves,  often  de- 
foliating the  bush  in  two  or  three  days.  The  currant  borer 
is  hatched  from  eggs  laid  near  the  tip  of  a  shoot  by  a 
small  moth.  The  worms  burrow  down  the  center  of  the 
shoot  and  give  it  a  sickly  appearance. 

Treatment.  —  Currants  should  be  sprayed,  early  in  the 
spring  before  the  buds  open,  with  strong  lime-sulphur 
solution  for  the  San  Jose  scale.  Just  as  the  leaves  are 
expanding  they  should  be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or 
dilute  lime-sulphur  solution,  to  which  has  been  added  2 


SOIL  AND   CULTURAL  METHODS  333 

pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  every  50  gallons.  This  spray 
should  be  repeated  when  the  fruit  is  about  one  fourth  grown. 
If  the  currant  worms  are  troublesome  after  this  time,  the 
foliage  should  be  dusted  with  pyre  thrum. 

If  the  foliage  becomes  suddenly  wilted  at  any  time,  it 
indicates  the  presence  of  the  cane  borer.  Cut  out  the 
affected  shoots  and  burn. 

Brambles.  —  The  brambles  include  the  red  raspberries, 
black  raspberries,  blackberries,  and  dewberries. 

Propagation.  —  Red  raspberries  produce  numerous 
shoots  from  the  roots,  which  are  generally  used  for  start- 
ing a  new  plantation.  It  is  often  customary,  however, 
when  there  is  a  shortage  of  plants,  to  propagate  them  by  root 
cuttings.  The  black  raspberries  (black  caps)  are  usually 
propagated  by  tip  layering.  The  high-bush  blackberry  is 
propagated  by  suckers  and  root  cuttings,  while  the  dew- 
berries may  be  multiplied  by  layering  the  new  canes,  which 
root  readily  in  midsummer. 

Soil  and  Cultural  Methods.  — The  brambles  prefer  moist, 
cool  growing  conditions.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
brambles  grow  best  in  the  wild,  near  the  edge  of  woods 
or  about  decaying  stumps,  hence  a  northern  exposure  and 
a  soil  that  contains  plenty  of  humus  and  plant  food  is 
generally  preferred.  Brambles  will  grow  on  poorly  drained 
soil,  while  on  light  soils,  if  properly  handled,  good  crops 
may  be  produced.  They  are  generally  set  in  rows  six  to 
eight  feet  apart,  with  the  plants  from  three  to  six  feet  apart 
in  the  rows. 

During  the  first  season,  frequent  cultivation  is  necessary, 
unless  mulching  with  straw  or  hay  is  practiced.  Soil  till- 
age is  generally  most  practical  as  a  means  of  preserving 
soil  moisture,  which  is  so  essential  to  a  vigorous  growth 


334         GRAPHS,    STRAWBERRIES,   BUSH    FRUITS 

of  the  brambles.  Tillage  should  cease  about  the  first  of 
August  to  ripen  up  the  canes.  At  that  time,  a  cover  crop 
of  rye,  vetch,  oats,  or  some  other  suitable  crop  may  be  sown. 


Fig.  177.  —  A  sturdy  row  of  blackberries  in  bloom. 

Pruning.  —  When  the  new  canes  are  about  two  and  a 
half  to  three  feet  high,  the  ends  should  be  pinched  off  to 
induce  branching.  If  these  canes  are  allowed  to  grow,  they 
become  unmanageable  and  produce  few  lateral  branches. 
Usually  larger  crops  are  produced  from  the  branched  canes, 
although  in  some  localities  black  raspberries  and  blackberries 
seem  to  produce  more  when  they  are  not  topped  during  the 
summer.  Directly  after  harvesting,  all  of  the  old  canes  that 
have  borne  fruit  should  be  cut  close  to  the  ground.  This  con- 
centrates the  energy  of  the  plants  into  the  new  canes  which 
are  to  produce  the  crop  the  following  season.  Early  in  the 
spring,  the  plants  should  be  pruned  again  and  all  small, 


VARIETIES  335 

weak  canes  should  be  cut  out  completely,  leaving  as  many 
well-developed  canes  as  the  plant  can  properly  maintain. 
The  lateral  branches  should  be  cut  back  to  strong,  mature 
buds,  the  distance  varying  much  with  the  variety  and 
maturity  of  the  wood.  This  pruning  thins  the  fruit,  thus 
permitting  better  development. 

Brambles  usually  bear  a  small  crop  the  second  year  after 
planting  and  a  full  crop  after  that  time. 

Varieties. — The  blackberries  and  purple-cane  rasp- 
berries usually  produce  the  heaviest  crops.  The  purple- 
cane  raspberries  are  hybrids  between  the  native  red  and 
the  native  black  raspberry,  and  are  especially  desirable  for 
canning.  Their  fruit  is  soft  and  of  a  rather  dull  color  and 
hence  not  popular  as  a  general  market  sort.  When  canned, 
however,  the  fruit  assumes  a  very  attractive  color.  The 
most  popular  varieties  of  the  purple-cane  raspberries  are 
Shaffer  and  Columbian.  Of  the  blackberries,  the  Snyder 
is  one  of  the  most  cosmopolitan  varieties  although  of  com- 
paratively poor  quality.  The  Early  Wilson,  Agawam, 
Eldorado,  and  Taylor  are  other  important  varieties,  while 
of  the  black  raspberries,  the  Plumb  Farmer,  Gregg,  Cum- 
berland, Kansas,  and  Ohio  are  the  most  popular.  Cuth- 
bert  is  the  standard  red  raspberry  and  the  Marlboro  is  also 
an  important  red  variety. 

Dewberries  are  seldom  an  important  commercial  fruit. 
They  ripen  earlier  than  the  blackberry.  Although  seldom 
a  very  profitable  crop,  they  are  grown  to  obtain  the  early 
market.  They  are  cultivated  the  same  as  the  blackberry, 
but  the  vines  are  trained  either  to  a  wire  trellis  or  to  a 
stake.  The  fruiting  canes  should  be  tied  up  each  spring 
and  the  new  canes  allowed  to  sprawl  over  the  ground.  The 
Lucre tia  and  B artel  are  the  most  important  varieties. 


336  GRAPES,   STRAWBERRIES,   BUSH  FRUITS 

EXERCISES 

1.  How  are  grapes  generally  propagated?     How  are    they 
propagated  in  jour  section?     Give  the  climate  and  seasonal 
requirements  of  grapes.     Is  your  summer  long  enough  for  them 
to  mature?     How  many  days  in  your  summer  season?     What 
slope  is  preferred  and  why? 

2.  At  what  distance  apart  are  grapes  planted?     How  many 
plants  can  be  set  on  an  acre  if  the  plants  are  set  8  feet  by  10 
feet?     At  six  cents  a  plant  what  would  it  cost  to  set  out  an 
acre  of  grapes? 

3.  What  injury  is  likely  to  result  from  late  spring  pruning 
of  grapes? 

4.  When  and  what  spray  should  be  applied  to  grapes  ?     What 
diseases  does  it  control  ? 

5.  Obtain  three  or  more  bunches  of  grapes  and  score  the 
same,  using  the  following  score  card. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  GRAPES 

Form  of  bunch 15 

Size  of  bunch 20 

Size  of  berry 20 

Color 10 

Flavor 15 

Freedom  from  blemish 20 

Total  100 

HOME   PROJECT 

Select  100  young  strawberry  plants  of  two  standard 
varieties.  Plant  half  of  each  on  the  matted-row  system 
and  half  on  the  double-hedgerow  system.  Cultivate,  weed, 
and  mulch,  as  directed  in  the  text.  Keep  a  record  of  the  labor 
expended  upon  each  and  write  a  detailed  description  of  each 
operation. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
VEGETABLE   GARDENING 

VEGETABLE  gardening  maybe  grouped  conveniently  under 
the  following  divisions :  home  gardening,  market  garden- 
ing, truck  gardening,  and  vegetable  forcing. 

Home  Gardening.  —  On  every  farm  the  vegetable  garden 
occupies  a  position  of  importance  as  a  source  of  food  sup- 


Fig.  178.  —  A  typical  school  garden. 

M.    AND   H.   PLANT  PROD.  —  22      337 


©  Keystone  View  Co. 


338 


VEGETABLE    GARDENING 


ply,  while  in  the  suburbs  of- the  larger  cities,  as  well  as  upon 
the  home  lot  of  the  village  dweller,  its  products  are  of  even 
greater  importance  in  supplying  the  home  table.  Mil- 
lions of  dollars'  worth  of  vegetables  are  annually  produced 
by  such  gardeners,  and  their  products  constitute  an  impor- 
tant source  of  our  food  supply. 


Fig.   179.  —  A  market  garden  should  be  near  town. 

Market  Gardening.  —  Market  gardening  refers  to  the 
intensive  commercial  culture  of  vegetable  crops  generally 
grown  near  the  larger  cities,  where  land  values  are  high. 

Truck  Gardening. -- The  growing  of  vegetable  crops 
on  an  extensive  scale  is  generally  referred  to  as  truck 
farming.  Sections  devoted  to  this  kind  of  gardening 
are  usually  more  distant  from  a  market,  where  land  values 
are  less  than  where  market  gardening  is  practiced.  Usually 
such  crops  as  celery,  tomatoes,  and  cabbage  are  grown  which 
do  not  need  such  intensive  culture  as  those  produced  by 
the  market  gardener.  Very  frequently,  truck  farming  is 
restricted  to  the  growing  of  one  or  two  special  crops,  as 
the  production  of  celery  at  Kalamazoo,  Michigan,  or  of 


TRUCK    GARDENING 


339 


Fig.   180.  —  Cultivating  the  home  garden. 


340 


VEGETABLE   GARDENING 


cantaloupes  at  Rocky  Ford,  Colorado.  In  many  places, 
however,  both  market  gardening  and  truck  farming  are 
practiced  on  the  same  farm. 

Vegetable  Forcing.  -  This  is  the  most  intensive  type  of 
vegetable  production.  It  is  frequently  combined  with 
market  gardening  and  necessitates  the  use  of  glass  houses 
for  starting  the  crops  early  or  growing  them  entirely  under 
glass.  Vegetables  may  be  forced  in  greenhouses,  hotbeds, 
or  cold  frames. 

Selecting  Varieties.  —  In  producing  vegetables  for  the 
home  table,  it  should  be  the  aim  of  the  gardener  to  secure 

a  uniform  and  con- 
stant supply.  The 
kinds  should  be  those 
preferred  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  family  for 
whom  they  are  grown. 
It  is  especially  desir- 
able to  produce  as 
great  a  variety  as  pos- 
sible of  the  best  and 
highest  quality.  Since 
the  quality  of  vege- 
tables depends  much 
upon  the  variety,  in 
selecting  them,  one 
should  remember  that  the  important  commercial  varieties 
are  not  always 'the  best  for  the  home  garden. 

Very  frequently,  varieties  of  high  quality  are  not  good 
yielders  or  the  best  for  shipping,  and  are,  therefore,  not 
the  most  profitable.  In  the  commercial  vegetable  garden, 
earliness  is  also  a  most  important  character.  The  grower 


Fig.   181.  —  A  celery  farm,  Kalamazoo,  Michigan. 


SOIL  341 

who  is  able  to  market  his  produce  a  few  days  ahead^of  his 
neighbor  usually  receives  a  much  higher  price.  Early 
harvesting  often  enables  the  grower  to  prepare  his  land 
in  time  for  a  succeeding  crop. 

Location.  --  The  garden  should  constitute  an  attractive 
feature  of  the  home  grounds.  It  should  be  placed  as  near 
the  dwelling  as  conditions  will  permit.  Since  vegetables 
must  be  cared  for  at  odd  times  and  gathered  at  frequent 
intervals,  it  should  be  convenient  for  these  purposes. 

The  location  of  a  commercial  garden  is  of  no  less  im- 
portance. It  is  very  desirable  to  be  near  a  good  market 
where  the  grower  may  keep  in  touch  with  the  demand  and 
deliver  his  product  quickly  at  a  minimum  expense. 

Soil.  —  Sandy  loams  with  porous  subsoils  are  generally 
considered  the  most  valuable  for  garden  purposes.  Wet 
land,  unless  it  can  be  satisfactorily  drained,  should  be 
avoided,  as  good  crops  cannot  be  produced  upon  poorly 
drained  soil.  As  the  market  gardener  fertilizes  very  heavily, 
the  physical  composition  of  the  soil  is  of  greater  importance 
than  the  amount  of  plant  food  it  contains.  A  few  of  the 
vegetable  crops  require  special  soils,  although  most  of 
them  may  be  grown  upon  all  the  good  agricultural 
lands. 

A  coarse,  sandy  soil  is  commonly  regarded  as  a  "  quick  " 
soil,  as  it  dries  out  and  warms  up  early  in  the  spring. 
Coarse  sands,  though  they  produce  early  maturity,  require 
a  larger  amount  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  fertilizer. 
Medium  sands  though  not  early  are  more  productive  and 
retentive  of  moisture.  The  silt  and  clay  soils  are  often 
preferred  for  late  crops.  The  muck  lands,  since  they  re- 
quire less  addition  of  plant  food,  are  the  most  profitable 
in  producing  late-season  crops. 


342 


VMdKTABLK  GARDENING 


Climate.  —  Climatic  conditions  determine  the  value  of 
a  section  for  vegetable  production.  Localities  having  an 
early  season  can  produce  vegetables  and  place  them  upon 
the  markets  of  the  less  favored  regions  at  a  good  profit. 
Many  sections  of  the  South,  because  of  favorable  climate, 

I I          I I 


-Corn  - 

Corn 
-Corn- 


-String  Beans- 


Cucumbers  - 


Peas 


-  Tomatoes  - 


-Spinach  - 
-Cabbage  - 
—Radish  — 
—Celery— 
-  Lettuce  - 
-Parsnips- 
'—Carrots— 
— Beets — 
— Onions — 
—Parsley- 


Fig.   182.  —  A  garden  plan. 

have  developed  into  large  trucking  regions.  Certain  sec- 
tions of  Michigan  and  New  York  annually  produce  celery 
because  their  moist,  cool  growing  season  proves  especially 
favorable  for  this  crop.  Onions  are  grown  in  the  Con- 
necticut valley,  peas  in  Wisconsin,  potatoes  in  Maine, 
and  cauliflower  on  Long  Island  because  the  climate  of  these 
sections  is  especially  adapted  to  the  production  of  such 
crops. 

Air  drainage  is  as  important  in  vegetable  production  as  it 


PLANNING  THE   VEGETABLE   GARDEN 


343 


is  in  fruit  growing,  especially  in  maturing  crops  for  an  early 
market.  The  necessity  for  irrigation  is  becoming  more 
apparent.  A  constant  and  cheap  water  supply  is  a  requi- 
site for  this  purpose.  Good  roads,  good  shipping  facili- 
ties, and  a  location  where  labor  may  be  cheaply  and  readily 
obtained  are  other  important  factors. 

Planning  the  Vegetable  Garden.  —  A  well-thought-out 
plan  is  essential  to  success  in  vegetable  gardening.  The 
arrangement  of  the  crops 
with  reference  to  each 
other  is  of  first  impor- 
tance. Usually  it  is 
better  to  place  the  peren- 
nial vegetables  together 
and  arrange  the  other 
crops  in  such  a  manner 
that  those  grown  about 
the  same  distance  apart 
will  be  adjacent  to  each 
other.  The  garden  should 
be  arranged  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  economize 
labor.  On  the  farm 
where  plenty  of  land  is 
available  and  labor 
scarce,  the  rows  should  be  far  enough  apart  to  permit  the 
use  of  a  horse  cultivator,  but  where  the  area  is  limited  and 
close  planting  is  necessary,  the  crops  must  be  cultivated 
by  hand.  Since  it  is  necessary  in  the  market  gardens  to 
get  as  large  returns  as  possible  from  a  given  area,  com- 
panion cropping  and  succession  cropping  are  practiced.  In 
companion  cropping,  two  or  more  crops  are  started  on  the 


Fig.    183.  — Cultivating    peppers   growing   be- 
tween rows  of  mature  onions. 


344  VEGETABLE   GARDENING 

land  at  the  same  time,  one  of  these  crops  being  removed 
before  the  other  crop  needs  the  entire  space.  For  example, 
cabbage  may  be  interplanted  with  lettuce,  or  radishes  may 
be  planted  between  rows  of  beets,  carrots,  or  parsnips. 

The  market  gardener  may  start  a  crop  on  his  land  in 
early  spring  for  early  summer  harvest  and  at  that  time 
start  another  crop  to  be  harvested  in  the  fall.  In  the 
Southern  States,  three  crops  are  frequently  grown  in  suc- 
cession. In  the  North,  however,  but  two  crops  can  be 
grown  in  this  way.  Market  gardeners  frequently  plant 
beets,  cabbages,  and  onions  in  early  spring,  harvesting 
them  in  July.  The  land  is  then  planted  to  celery,  which  is 
harvested  in  the  fall.  Rutabagas,  turnips,  spinach,  and 
late  cabbage  are  also  commonly  grown  as  a  second  crop. 
This  system  of  cropping  is  called  succession  cropping. 

Rotation.  —  For  the  vegetable  garden,  crop  rotation  is 
important.  Different  plants  differ  in  their  food  require- 
ments. Some  crops  require  a  liberal  supply  of  nitrogen, 
while  others  demand  more  potassium.  Crops  that  are 
grown  annually  upon  the  same  land  are  most  subject  to 
serious  injury  from  diseases  and  insect  pests.  All  of  these 
points  should  be  carefully  considered,  not  only  that  the 
crops  may  mature  at  the  most  desirable  time  and  with  the 
least  expenditure  of  labor,  but  also  that  all  portions  of 
the  land  may  be  used  to  the  best  advantage. 

Disease  Prevention.  —  No  vegetable  crop  is  entirely 
immune  from  diseases.  Of  the  preventive  measures,  spray- 
ing is  of  first  importance.  The  spores  alighting  on  the 
surface  of  the  fruit  or  foliage  may  be  killed  by  spray  mix- 
tures during  their  germination.  Rotation  is  also  an  im- 
portant means  of  preventing  disease,  as  many  of  the 
spores  live  over  in  the  soil  from  year  to  year.  New  land  is, 


DESTROYING  INSECTS 


345 


therefore,  generally  free  from  these  spores.  The  selection 
of  resistant  varieties  is  another  important  means  of  pre- 
venting disease.  The  purchase  of  seeds  from  infected 
sections  is  a  common  means  of  spreading  diseases,  for  the 
spores  of  many  diseases  are  carried  on  seeds  from  place 
to  place.  The  treatment  of  seed  to  kill  the  spores  is  there- 
fore an  effective  method  of  dis- 
ease prevention.  Many  diseases 
are  also  carried  in  the  manure. 
Throwing  old  diseased  plants  in 
the  compost  or  manure  pile  and 
afterwards  spreading  this  on  the 
land  is  a  very  common  method 
of  infecting  crops  from  season 
to  season.  All  refuse  from 
diseased  plants  should  be  de- 
stroyed. 

Destroying  Insects.  —  Insect 
attacks  can  be  prevented  best 
by  spraying.  "  In  spraying,  it  is 
necessary  to  apply  the  spray  as 
soon  as  the  insects  appear,  as  it 
is  easier  to  control  them  at  that  time  than  after  they  be- 
come numerous.  Successful  spraying  depends  largely  upon 
selecting  the  most  effective  spray  and  upon  doing  the  work 
thoroughly  and  at  the  right  time. 

There  are  many  spray  pumps  used  for  vegetable  garden- 
ing work.  The  bucket  sprayers  are  the  most  serviceable 
to  use  where  the  crops  are  either  too  close  together  or  too 
far  advanced  to  use  the  barrel  or  power  sprayers.  Barrel 
pumps  are  the  most  satisfactory  for  general  crops,  as  they 
are  cheap  and  require  less  labor  than  the  hand  sprayers. 


184.  —  Barrel  sprayer. 


346          VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Traction  sprayers  may  be  used  for  many  crops  and  are 
the  most  convenient  for  general  use. 

In  the  selection  of  nozzles  for  vegetable  spraying,  it  is 
important  to  select  those  that  throw  the  spray  in  the 
finest  mist  and  with  the  greatest  force.  The  type  used 
will  vary  with  the  pressure  carried  and  the  crop  that  is  to 
be  sprayed.  The  Vermorel  and  the  Disc  nozzles  are  two 
popular  standard  types.  (See  Chapter  VIII.) 

EXERCISES 

1.  Distinguish  between  home  gardening,  market  gardening, 
truck  gardening,  and  vegetable  forcing. 

2.  Name  the  desirable  -characteristics  of  a  good  home  va- 
riety of  a  vegetable.     Of  a  market  variety. 

3.  What  are  the  requisites  of  the  location  of  a  home  vege- 
table garden?     Is  your  home   garden   located   in   accordance 
with    these   rules?     How    might   it    be   changed   so   as   more 
nearly  to  conform  to  them? 

4.  What   is    the  principal  vegetable   crop   grown   in   your 
region  ? 

5.  What  type  of  soil  is  preferable  for  a  garden  spot?     Has 
your  garden  at  home  a  single  type  of  soil  or  has  it  many  types  ? 
Bring  to  school  samples  of  as  many  types  as  you  can  find  in 
your  own  vegetable  garden. 

6.  Give  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  following 
kinds  of  soil  for  vegetable  production :    coarse  sand,  medium 
fine  sand,  clay  loam,  stiff  clay,  and  muck. 

7.  Draw  accurately  and  to  scale  a  diagram  of  the  way  your 
home  garden  was  planned  last  year,  locating  accurately  the 
plots  in  which  the  various  vegetables  and  bush  fruits  were 
grown.     Measure  the  garden  and  accurately  compute  its  area. 

8.  Make  a  plan  of  your  home  garden  as  it  would  be  if  you 
could  alter  it  in  any  way  you  think  advisable. 


SCHOOL   GARDENING  WORK 


347 


SCHOOL   GARDENING  WORK 

1.  Each  student  should  be  assigned  a  plot  of  ground  at 
least  10  by  25  feet  in  size.     Larger  individual  gardens  are  often 
desirable.     The  several  plots  should  be  divided  by  main  walks 
3  feet  in  width  and  secondary  cross  walks  i-J-  or  2  feet  in  width. 
The  arrangement  of  these  gardens  depends  much  upon  the 
shape  of  the  particular  piece  of  land  available. 

A  novelty  garden,  general  garden,  hotbed,  and  a  demon- 
stration plot  in  which  each  exercise  may  be  actually  demon- 
strated by  the  teacher  are  also  desirable  adjuncts  of  the  school 
garden.  The  borders  of  the  school  garden  may  be  surrounded 
by  narrow  gardens  where  the  girls  may  be  given  instruction  in 
flower  gardening. 

2.  After  informing  the  students  of  the  list  of  vegetables  that 
are  to  be  grown,  each  one  should  make  a  plan  of  his  garden, 
drawn  to  a  definite  scale   in  his   notebook,  showing   the   ar- 
rangement of  the  vegetables,  distance  apart  of  rows,  succession 
cropping,  and  companion  cropping. 

3.  Prepare  a  page  in  your  notebook  and  keep  records  as 
called  for  in  the  following  table : 


DATE  or 
PLANTING 

VARIETIES 

UP 
DATE 

BLOOMING 
DATE 

USED 
DATE 

CONTINUED 
BEARING 

4.    Prepare  an  account  sheet  in  your  notebook  as  follows 
and  keep  record  of  expenses  and  receipts. 


DATE 

PAID  OUT 

$ 

i 

DATE 

RECEIVED 

$ 

i 

April  10 

For  seeds 

75 

July  25 

For  doz.  ears 

of  corn 

IS 

CHAPTER  XIV 
MANURE   AND    COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS 

Stable  Manure.  —  Stable  manure  is  the  most  valuable 
fertilizer  for  growing  vegetables ;  and  market  gardeners 
depend  mainly  upon  it.  It  not  only  adds  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus, and  potassium,  the  three  essential  elements  of 


©Keystone  Vieic  ('<>. 
Fig.   185.  —  Manure  spreader  followed  by  gang  plow  drawn  by  tractor. 

plant  food,  but  also  large  quantities  of  vegetable  matter  to 
the  soil,  which  improves  the  texture  of  the  soil  and  increases 
its  water-holding  capacity. 

348 


AMOUNT  TO  APPLY  349 

The  general  farmer  applies  manure  to  the  land  as  soon 
as  possible  after  it  is  produced.  In  truck  farming  also, 
where  the  vegetable  crops  are  in  a  rotation  with  grass  or 
clover,  this  is  a  commendable  practice ;  but  fresh  stable 
manure  is  not  suitable  for  intensive  culture,  because  it  is 
not  quick  enough  in  its  action  and  its  coarse  texture  pre- 
vents thorough  incorporation  with  the  soil.  Fresh  manure 
is  likely  to  cause  a  rank  growth  of  tops  at  the  expense  of 
the  fruit  or  root.  For  example,  it  causes  tomato  plants  to 
run  to  vine  and  may  cause  onions  to  produce  a  large  per- 
centage of  "  thick  necks  "  or  "  scallions."  Fresh  manure 
often  contains  a  large  number  of  weed  seeds  that  may 
prove  very  troublesome.  Composting  destroys  weed  seeds. 
Well-decomposed  stable  manure  is  the  best  for  vegetable 
gardening. 

Time  to  Apply. --The  proper  time  to  apply  manure 
depends  upon  its  kind,  its  condition,  the  crops  to  be  grown, 
and  the  rotation  to  be  followed.  If  clover  or  grass  land 
is  to  be  prepared  for  a  vegetable  crop,  the  manure  should  be 
applied  before  plowing.  If  the  manure  is  well  decomposed 
and  of  a  limited  quantity,  it  is  desirable  to  use  it  as  a  top 
dressing  after  plowing,  thoroughly  harrowing  it  into  the 
soil.  If  two  or  more  crops  are  to  be  grown  in  rotation  dur- 
ing the  same  season,  it  is  good  practice  to  apply  a  portion 
to  each  crop.  On  soils  of  rather  low  fertility,  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  manure  in  the  hills  or  rows,  as  this  secures  a 
greater  concentration  of  the  plant  food  in  the  region  of 
the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Amount  to  Apply.  —  The  amount  of  manure  that  can 
be  most  profitably  supplied  depends  upon  the  kind  of  crop 
grown,  the  soil,  and  the  available  supply  of  manure. 
Market  gardeners  usually  use  from  25  to  50  tons  per 


350      MANURE   AND    COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS 


acre  each  year,  while  the  truck  growers  generally  apply 
15  to  25  tons  annually.  If  a  commercial  fertilizer  is  used 
to  supplement  stable  manure,  this  amount  may  be  con- 
siderably reduced. 

Commercial  Fertilizers.  —  It  is  seldom  that  fertilizing 
with  commercial  fertilizers  cannot  be  practiced  profitably 
by  the  vegetable  grower.  This  is  particularly  true  when 

an  adequate  supply 
of  animal  manure 
is  not  available. 
Manures  are  richer 
in  nitrogen  than  in 
phosphorus  and  po- 
tassium, and  hence 
even  where  large 
quantities  of  stable 
manure  are  used,  in- 
creased production 
usually  results  from 
the  addition  of  these 
two  elements  of  plant 
food.  Some  forms 
of  commercial  fertili- 
zers, too,  are  more 
quickly  available 
than  manure  and  hence  earlier  crops  may  be  produced 
by  their  use.  Vegetables  of  a  higher  quality  are  also 
possible,  as  slow  growth  is  likely  to  produce  bitter,  tough, 
and  stringy  vegetables. 

Nitrogen.  —  Nitrogen  is  the  most  important  element  of 
plant  food  to  be  supplied  on  the  light  sandy  soils.  In  the 
growth  of  lettuce,  spinach,  celery,  and  other  foliage  crops. 


Fig.  186.      A  heavy  crop  of  onions.     Grown  on  muck 
land  to  which  commercial  fertilizers  were  added. 


COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS  351 

nitrogen  plays  a  most  important  part  in  producing  an  abun- 
dance of  tender  succulent  leaves.  It  is  the  most  expensive 
element  of  plant  food. 

Nitrogen  may  be  purchased  in  many  forms.  Nitrate  of 
soda  is  used  in  comparatively  small  amounts  and  applied 
at  intervals  of  ten  days  to  two  weeks.  If  applied  all  at 
one  time,  a  large  proportion  is  lost  by  leaching  before  the 
plants  are  ready  to  take  it  up.  A  common  practice  is  to 
use  a  little  at  the  time  of  planting,  followed  by  other  applica- 
tions as  the  crop  develops.  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  not  so 
quickly  available,  is  used  to  supply  nitrogen  during  a  longer 
season  of  growth.  All  the  organic  forms  of  nitrogen,  as 
dried  blood  and  tankage,  must  decay  before  the  nitrogen 
becomes  available. 

Phosphorus.  —  Phosphorus  aids  in  maturing  the  crop 
and  producing  maximum  yields.  Many  soils  are  lacking 
in  this  element.  Acid  phosphate,  bone  meal,  and  raw 
rock  phosphate  are  common  sources  of  this  element. 

Potassium.  —  Sandy  soils  and  muck  lands  are  likely  to 
be  low  in  potassium.  Root  crops  require  a  bountiful  sup- 
ply of  this  important  substance.  Muriate  of  potash  and 
sulphate  of  potash  are  the  most  common  forms  used  by 
commercial  gardeners. 

The  amount  of  commercial  fertilizer  that  can  be  profitably 
used  varies  from  300  pounds  to  one  or  two  tons  per  acre. 
Where  two  or  more  crops  are  grown  annually  upon  the 
same  land,  the  commercial  grower  endeavors  to  apply  a 
small  excess  of  all  the  essential  fertilizer  elements  needed 
by  the  crops.  One  ton  to  the  acre  for  a  single  crop  is 
considered  a  liberal  application,  and  it  is  seldom  that 
larger  amounts  are  profitable. 

Lime.  —  Few  crops  thrive  in  sour  soils.     It  is  highly 


352       MANURE   AND    COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS 

important  to  keep  the  garden  soil  slightly  alkaline,  and  this 
requires  the  occasional  use  of  lime.  Many  of  the  soils 
are  infertile  because  of  acidity  which  prevents  the  growth 
of  the  soil  bacteria  that  are  essential  to  decomposition. 
Liming  also  promotes  the  growth  of  bacteria  and  makes  plant 
food  available.  A  thousand  pounds  of .  air-slacked  lime 
to  the  acre  is  usually  sufficient  on  most  soils.  This  should 
be  applied  broadcast  over  the  soil  and  harrowed  in,  care 
being  taken  not  to  mix  it  with  horse  manure,  as  it  releases 
the  nitrogen  in  the  manure.  If  applied  in  the  spring,  it 
should  be  spread  two  or  more  weeks  before  seeding. 

Mixing  of  Fertilizers.  —  For  the  home  garden,  it  is  usu- 
ally most  convenient  to  purchase  high-grade  commercial 
fertilizers  already  mixed.  In  commercial  vegetable  grow- 
ing, there  are  many  advantages  in  the  home  mixing  of 
fertilizers.  The  grower  can  compound  the  mixture  in 
such  proportions  as  best  suits  his  particular  needs,  and 
thus  know  the  kind  and  amount  of  each  fertilizer  used. 

Fertilizers  may  be  mixed  upon  any  tight  floor.  If 
nitrate  of  soda  or  potash  salts  are  used,  they  should  be 
crushed  fine  before  mixing.  The  light  materials,  as  dried 
blood  or  tankage,  should  be  put  on  the  bottom  of  the  floor 
and  the  other  materials  spread  over  them.  The  materials 
are  then  thoroughly  mixed  by  shoveling  the  pile  over 
several  times.  After  mixing,  the  fertilizer  should  be  bagged 
and  kept  in  dry  storage  until  ready  for  use.  One  of  the 
chief  advantages  of  buying  factory-mixed  fertilizers  is 
that  they  are  more  uniformly  mixed. 

Cover  Crops.  —  Many  truck  growers  find  the  practice 
of  cover-cropping  the  most  economical  method  of  supply- 
ing humus.  Sometimes  this  cover  crop  is  left  to  grow  for 
a  year  or  more  and  forms  one  of  the  crops  of  a  rotation. 


EXERCISES  353 

Growers  that  practice  this  method  are  not  troubled  so  much 
with  injurious  insects  and  diseases  as  those  who  are  forced 
to  produce  the  same  crops  on  the  same  land  year  after  year. 
(See  paragraph  on  cover  crops  in  connection  with  fruits, 
Chapter  VI.) 

EXERCISES 

1.  Name  the  three  fertilizing  elements  that  are  contained 
in  manure  and  commercial  fertilizers. 

2.  What  are  the  objections  to  the  use  of  fresh  stable  manure 
in  market  gardens? 

3.  Name  three  fertilizers  that  are  rich  in  nitrogen,  three 
rich  in  phosphorus,  two  rich  in  potassium. 

4.  What  soil  condition  makes  necessary  the  addition  of  lime  ? 

5.  What  is  a  cover  crop?     Is  clover  a  good  cover  crop? 
Why? 

HOME   PROJECT 

In  fertilizing  the  home  garden  use  a  moderate  amount  of 
well-decomposed  manure  over  the  entire  area.  Supplement 
this  on  one  half  the  garden  with  a  dressing  of  acid  phosphate 
applied  at  the  rate  of  300  pounds  per  acre.  Keep  date  in 
notebook  to  prove  results. 


M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. 23 


CHAPTER  XV 
TILLAGE   AND   IRRIGATION 

THE  yield  and  quality  of  a  vegetable  crop  depends  much 
upon  tillage.  The  objects  of  tillage  are  as  follows :  (i) 
to  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil ;  (2)  to  pre- 
serve and  control  the  soil  moisture ;  (3)  to  modify  soil 
temperature ;  (4)  to  destroy  weeds  and  to  cover  humus- 
producing  materials,  as  manure  or  cover  crops ;  (5)  to 
aerate  the  soil  and  thus  hasten  its  chemical  action  and 
make  plant  food  soluble. 

Plowing.  —  In  the  Middle  West,  fall  plowing  is  preferred. 
The  broken  furrows  collect  water,  hence  a  maximum  supply 
of  soil  moisture  is  assured,  and  on  sod  land,  the  sod  has 
time  to  decompose.  Fall  plowing  destroys  many  insects 
and  thus  reduces  their  injury  to  the  crops.  Fall-plowed 
land  may  be  harrowed  and  planted  earlier  in  the  spring. 

The  proper  depth  of  plowing  depends  upon  the  crop  to 
be  planted  as  well  as  upon  the  natural  depth  of  the  top 
soil.  Deep  plowing  is  usually  best  for  vegetable  crops  al- 
though the  turning  up  of  subsoil  is  always  detrimental  to 
these  crops. 

Harrowing.  —  Fall-plowed  land  should  be  harrowed  as 
soon  as  the  ground  is  fit  to  work  in  the  spring.  If  plowed 
in  the  spring,  the  ground  should  be  harrowed  immediately 
after  plowing. 

The  function  of  harrowing  is  to  pulverize  the  soil  and 
smooth  the  land.  Disk  and  cutaway  harrows  are  especially 

354 


CULTIVATION  355 

valuable  and  are  most  suitable  for  heavy  sod  lands  and 
clay  soils.  The  spring- tooth  harrow  is  often  used  after 
the  disk  or  cutaway  harrows  to  pulverize  and  level  the  land 
further.  In  vegetable  gardening,  one  cannot  prepare  the 
soil  too  finely,  as  it  insures  uniformity  of  depth,  moisture, 
and  temperature  for  the  seeds.  Raking  with  hand  rakes 
after  harrowing  is  a  very  expensive  practice.  A  smoothing 
harrow  does  the  work  of  a  steel  garden  rake  in  making  the 
soil  very  fine.  The  plank  drag  is  used  by  many  market 
gardeners  to  prepare  a  very  fine,  smooth  surface  for  small 
seeds  and  delicate  seedlings. 

Cultivation.  --The  most  important  function  of  cultiva- 
tion is  to  preserve  soil  moisture.     Although  it  is  also  the 


Fig.   187-  —  Hand  cultivation  of  sugar  beets. 

most  economical  means  of  destroying  weeds,  this  is  really 
a  secondary  matter. 

In  growing  onions,  radishes,  lettuce,  and  similar  crops,  the 
rows  are  generally  too  close  to  permit  the  use  of  horse  cul- 
tivators. Hand  cultivators,  therefore,  are  most  impor- 
tant tools  in  the  general  intensive  garden. 


356 


TILLAGE   AND   IRRIGATION 


Cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as  possible  after  seed- 
ing. After  the  seedlings  appear,  it  is  best  to  cultivate 
every  week  or  ten  days  and  after  every  hard  rain.  The 
depth  of  cultivation  depends  upon  the  kind  and  size  of 
the  plant. 

Hand  hoeing  is  not  so  efficient  as  cultivating  with  horse 
or  wheel  cultivators.  If  hand  hoeing  is  practiced,  it  should 
be  done  before  the  weeds  are  large  or  it  will  prove  both 
tedious  and  expensive. 

Economical  and  efficient  work  can  only  be  accomplished 
with  good  tools,  hence  the  following  points  may  be  profit- 


Fig.  188.  —  Overhead  irrigation  of  tomatoes. 

ably  observed :  (i)  keep  all  implements  and  tools  under 
cover  when  not  in  use  ;  (2)  keep  them  in  good  repair ;  and 
(3)  clean  all  tools  before  storing. 

Irrigation.  --  The    necessity    of    insuring    garden    and 
truck    crops    against    unfavorable    weather    conditions    is 


IRRIGATION  357 

highly  important.  The  investment  in  the  crop  is  so  large 
that  the  grower  cannot  always  afford  to  depend  upon 
seasonal  conditions  for  its  success.  Hence,  irrigation  in 
humid  regions  often  becomes  necessary  to  protect  a  crop 
against  droughts. 

Water  applied  at  the  right  time  produces  large  yields  of 
high  quality  and  earlier  maturity.  Seeds  cannot  germinate 
without  moisture,  and  transplanting  often  fails  during  hot, 
dry  weather.  Irrigation  promotes  continuous  growth  and 
development  from  the  time  the  crop  is  seeded  until  maturity. 
Greater  benefits  are  also  obtained  from  the  fertilizers  when 
an  abundant  supply  of  moisture  is  at  hand,  as  water  is  not 
only  a  solvent  for  plant  foods,  but  also  serves  as  a  medium 
in  their  distribution. 

Various  methods  of  irrigation  are  practiced  by  vegetable 
growers.  In  the  West,  the  furrow  method  is  most  generally 
used.  The  land  must  be  properly  graded,  however,  for 
carrying  the  water  to  the  various  parts  of  the  garden  by 
this  system.  On  porous  soils  or  on  land  of  uneven  con- 
tour, it  is  not  desirable. 

Underground  tile  may  be  laid  a  foot  to  one  and  a 
half  feet  in  depth,  in  lines  about  ten  to  fifteen  feet  apart 
throughout  the  field.  This  is  a  good  system,  as  the  crop 
is  watered  from  underneath  and  there  is  less  loss  by  evapo- 
ration. The  foliage  of  the  plants  is  not  wet  and  there  is 
less  liability  of  injury  from  fungous  diseases. 

In  the  overhead  system  of  irrigation  overhead  lines  of 
pipe  about  twenty-five  feet  apart  are  supported  on  posts 
and  run  across  the  field.  Openings  about  four  feet  apart 
are  made  in  this  pipe,  into  which  small  nozzles  are  inserted. 
These  throw  a  fine  mist  over  the  crop.  The  advantages 
of  this  system,  which  is  popular  with  market  gardeners, 


3S8  TILLAGE   AND   IRRIGATION 

are  as  follows:  (i)  the  water  falling  in  a  fine  spray  pre- 
vents the  washing  and  packing  of  the  soil ;  (2)  the  water 
is  distributed  uniformly  over  the  crops;  (3)  it  requires 
very  little  labor  to  operate  the  system. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  the  objects  of  tillage? 

2.  What  is  the  chief  object  of  cultivation?     What  is  a  soil 
mulch  ? 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  working  soil  when  it  is  too  moist? 
What  is  the  effect  of  tilling  soil  when  it  is  too  dry? 

4.  How  many  times  do  you  usually  cultivate  your  garden? 

5.  What  rules  should  be  observed  when  caring  for  tools? 
How  many  of  these  do  you  observe? 

6.  Explain  the  various  methods  of  irrigation.     With  your 
local  conditions,  which  system  would  prove  most  practical? 
Do  you  think  it  would  pay? 

7.  Visit  a  garden  that  has  an  irrigating  system  when  the 
system  is  in  operation. 

SCHOOL   GARDEN  WORK 

It  is  desirable  to  have  the  entire  school  garden  manured, 
plowed,  and  harrowed  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  can  be 
properly  handled.  From  a  plan  drawn  to  a  definite  scale  of 
the  entire  school  gardening  plots,  the  students  should  be  as- 
signed a  definite  portion  of  the  work  in  the  staking  out  of  the 
walks  and  gardens.  This  should  constitute  a  valuable  exercise 
in  measuring,  sighting,  and  working  from  the  plan  to  the  garden. 
Each  student  must  be  held  responsible  for  a  certain  definite 
portion  of  this  work. 

Each  student  should  then  thoroughly  rake  and  smooth  off 
his  assigned  garden,  square  up  the  boundaries  of  the  garden, 
and  tidy  up  the  walks  surrounding  it. 


HOME   PROJECT  359 

HOME   PROJECT 

Select  a  plot  of  ground  at  least  32  feet  by  32  feet.  Plow 
half  of  this  plot  in  the  fall  and  half  in  the  spring.  Cul- 
tivate each  plot  in  the  spring  at  least  once  a  week  until  planted. 
Fertilize  each  plot  the  same  and  seed  or  plant  to  some  common 
vegetable  crop  as  spinach,  onion,  cabbage,  or  tomato.  Culti- 
vate half  of  each  plot  once  every  week,  and  the  other  half  once 
every  two  weeks.  Make  a  plan  of  the  garden  showing  the  four 
plots  and  keep  a  detailed  record  of  the  date,  labor,  and  method 
of  performing  the  work.  Every  two  weeks  during  the  growing 
season  and  at  harvest  time  note  the  comparative  condition  of 
each  plot. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

GLASS  STRUCTURES  AND  CARE  OF  GREENHOUSE 

CROPS 

IN  producing  early  vegetables  glass  structures  are  es- 
sential. These  are  used  both  as  a  means  of  starting  plants 
early  in  the  spring  and  of  growing  crops  during  the  winter 
season  when  it  is  impossible  to  produce  them  out  of  doors. 

Hotbeds.  —  Hotbeds  are  the  simplest  and  cheapest  forms 
of  heated  glass  structures.  A  well-drained  spot,  protected 


Fig.  189.  —  Cross  section  of  a  hotbed. 

from  the  north  and  west,  conveniently  located,  and  acces- 
sible to  a  liberal  supply  of  water,  are  the  essential  condi- 
tions governing  their  location.  The  heat  furnished  the 
beds  is  usually  produced  by  the  fermentation  of  manure. 
Since  from  fifteen  to  thirty  inches  of  manure  is  required,  a 
pit  should  be  dug  one  and  a  half  to  three  feet  deep.  For 
starting  plants  that  require  high  temperature  for  a  long 

360 


COLD   FRAMES  361 

period,  the  greater  depth  is  desirable.  The  pit  is  dug  in 
the  fall  before  the  ground  freezes  and  protected  with  leaves 
or  manure  during  the  winter.  It  should  be  of  the  same 
width  as  the  length  of  the  sash  and  of  any  desired  length, 
and  should  extend  east  and  west.  The  frame  may  be 
made  of  wood,  brick,  or  concrete.  The  north  side  of  the 
frame  should  be  about  six  inches  higher  than  the  south 
side,  to  give  the  bed  the  proper  exposure. 

For  hotbeds,  fresh  horse  manure  containing  a  large  por- 
tion of  straw  is  preferred.  This  is  stacked  in  a  shed  or 
other  protected  spot  in  piles  four  to  five  feet  wide  and 
about  four  feet  high.  After  two  or  three  days,  these  piles 
should  be  forked  over,  and  three  or  four  days  later  shoveled 
into  the  pit.  The  frame  is  also  banked  outside  with 
manure.  In  filling  the  pit,  the  manure  should  be  placed 
in  successive  layers  of  five  or  six  inches  and  thoroughly 
tamped  down,  especially  along  the  sides  of  the  frame. 
From  four  to  six  inches  of  good  soil  is  then  spread  over  the 
top.  If  a  thermometer  is  thrust  into  the  soil,  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  temperature  rises  considerably  for  a  day 
or  two.  After  it  has  receded  to  about  80°  Fahrenheit,  the 
bed  is  ready  for  use. 

Muskmelons,  cucumbers,  lettuce,  tomatoes,  and  many 
other  vegetables  may  be  started  in  the  hotbed  and  later 
transplanted  to  the  field.  Hotbeds  are  largely  used  for 
growing  and  maturing  such  crops  as  radishes  and  lettuce. 
In  the  fall,  they  are  often  used  for  maturing  late  crops. 

Cold  Frames.  —  A  cold  frame  is  even  simpler  than  a  hot- 
bed, to  which  it  is  quite  similar  except  that  no  bottom  heat 
is  supplied,  hence  it  is  not  necessary  to  dig  a  deep  pit  for 
its  construction.  A  cold  frame  is  built  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  using  a  twelve-inch  plank  for  the  upper  side  of 


362     GLASS   STRUCTURES   AND    GREENHOUSE    CROPS 


CONSTRUCTION  363 

the  frame  and  a  six-inch  plank  for  the  lower  side.  The 
location  and  general  construction  is  otherwise  very  similar 
to  that  of  the  hotbed.  For  some  crops,  it  is  desirable  to 
dig  a  shallow  pit  in  order  to  provide  room  for  the  tops  of 
the  plants.  For  example,  to  grow  tomato  plants,  it  will 
require  a  deeper  frame  than  for  radishes  or  lettuce.  These 
frames  are  easily  moved  from  one  place  to  another  and  are 
often  used  to  force  plants  in  the  spring  that  have  been 
previously  started  in  the  fall.  Their  chief  function  is  to 
grow  plants  that  have  been  previously  started  in  the  green- 
house or  hotbed,  and  to  harden  plants  that  have  been 
grown  in  the  greenhouse,  before  setting  them  in  the  field. 
The  cheapness  of  their  construction  makes  them  extremely 
desirable. 

Greenhouses.  — The  out-of-season  demand  for  many  of  the 
vegetables  has  resulted  in  the  construction  of  large  green- 
houses. These  have  many  advantages  over  hotbeds. 
The  conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture  can  be  defi- 
nitely controlled  and  crops  can  be  produced  during  the 
most  unfavorable  weather.  They  provide  profitable  em- 
ployment for  the  market  gardener  the  year  round  and  are 
also  valuable  for  starting  early  plants  to  be  later  trans- 
planted to  the  field. 

In  selecting  a  location,  it  is  desirable  to  choose  a  site 
that  is  protected  from  the  north  and  west,  that  has  a  good 
exposure  to  the  south,  and  that  is  unshaded  by  other 
buildings. 

Construction.  --The  heat  and  moisture  within  a  green- 
house causes  rapid  decay  of  wooden  parts.  Cypress  and 
cedar  are  the  most  durable  kinds  of  wood  and  are  there- 
fore largely  used  for  this  purpose.  Probably  the  most 
practical  form  of  construction  is  what  is  known  as  the  semi- 


364     GLASS   STRUCTURES   AND    GREENHOUSE   CROPS 

iron  type.  Such  greenhouses  are  built  with  concrete 
walls  and  with  the  interior  braces  and  supports  of  iron  pipes. 
The  roof  bars  and  other  wooden  parts,  if  made  of  cypress 
and  painted  every  year,  will  last  for  some  time  and  may 
then  be  replaced  without  a  large  expense.  The  construction 
should  be  such  as  to  provide  a  maximum  amount  of  light. 

A  greenhouse  should  have  ample  provisions  for  thorough 
ventilation.  Ventilators  are  placed  at  one  or  both  sides 
of  the  ridge  and  frequently  extra  ventilators  are  placed 
along  the  sides  of  the  house.  It  is  the  aim  to  place  the 
ventilators  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  cold  drafts  from 
striking  the  plants  and  to  provide  ample  ventilation  dur- 
ing all  kinds  of  weather. 

Greenhouses  are  heated  by  steam  or  hot  water.  The 
larger  greenhouses  are  generally  heated  by  steam.  Hot 
water  is  preferred  for  heating  small  houses,  as  the  pipes  re- 
tain heat  for  a  greater  length  of  time  and  the  boiler  may  be 
left  longer  without  attention. 

Soils.  —  A  well-drained  soil  of  good  texture  containing 
an  ample  supply  of  plant  food  is  required  for  greenhouse 
culture.  Usually  a  sandy  loam  is  preferred,  although  muck 
soils  are  frequently  used.  Where  large  quantities  of  soil 
are  required,  a  suitable  garden  area  is  selected  in  the  spring 
and  given  a  heavy  coat  of  stable  manure.  The  land  is 
then  plowed  and  afterwards  harrowed  repeatedly  during 
the  summer.  By  fall,  it  is  in  excellent  condition  for  use. 
If  a  smaller  quantity  of  soil  is  required,  it  may  be  pre- 
pared by  composting.  A  good  blue  grass  sod  is  selected 
and  stacked  in  alternate  layers  with  manure.  It  is  then 
left  to  decompose.  After  standing  for  about  a  year,  the 
pile  is  shoveled  over  two  or  three  times  at  intervals  of  a 
few  weeks,  and  is  then  ready  to  use. 


TEMPERATURE  365 

Temperature.  —  The  proper  temperature  for  vegetable 
forcing  varies  greatly  with  the  kind  of  vegetables.  Let- 
tuce and  radishes  grow  best  at  a  comparatively  low  tem- 
perature, while  tomatoes  and  cucumbers  demand  a  high 
temperature  for  their  best  development.  Plants  grown  at 
too  high  a  temperature  produce  weak,  spindling  stems  and 
are  very  susceptible  to  disease.  If  the  temperature  is  too 
low,  it  seriously  weakens  the  plants  and  stunts  their  growth. 
The  temperature  at  which  plants  may  be  maintained  also 
varies  with  the  general  weather  conditions.  During  bright 
sunny  weather  when  plenty  of  ventilation  may  be  given, 
the  temperature  may  run  considerably  higher  than  is  de- 
sirable under  other  conditions.  During  a  prolonged 
dark,  cloudy  period,  it  is  better  to  maintain  a  lower  tem- 
perature than  the  plants  ordinarily  demand.  It  is  always 
the  practice  to  maintain  the  temperature  fifteen  to  twenty 
degrees  lower  at  night  than  during  the  day.  A  greater 
difference  of  temperature  than  this  is  seldom  desired  and 
is  usually  harmful. 

In  controlling  the  temperatures  of  hotbeds,  it  is  a  com- 
mon fault  of  the  beginner  to  allow  the  bed  to  cool  off  too 
much  during  the  afternoon  before  replacing  the  sash.  All 
hotbeds,  especially  during  the  early  spring,  should  be 
covered  early  in  the  afternoon  to  prevent  chilling  the 
plants.  In  ventilating  them  during  cool  weather,  the 
sash  should  be  opened  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent 
cold  drafts  from  striking  the  plants.  During  dark,  cloudy 
weather,  hotbeds  need  little  ventilation. 

In  order  to  control  the  temperature  of  hotbeds,  it  is 
frequently  necessary  to  provide  additional  protection. 
Mats  made  of  rye  straw  are  commonly  used  to  cover  the 
sash  during  severe  weather.  Burlap  mats  stuffed  with 


366     GLASS   STRUCTURES   AND    GREENHOUSE    CROPS 

cotton  waste  are  also  used  for  this  purpose,  although  they 
are  less  satisfactory. 

Watering.  --  Plants  growing  under  glass  need  careful 
watering.  During  bright  sunny  weather,  when  the  plants 
are  growing  very  rapidly,  they  need  much  water.  Dur- 
ing bright  weather,  most  crops  have  to  be  watered  daily, 
while  during  cloudy  weather,  they  may  not  need  water 


Fig.   191.  —  Watering  the  plants  in  a  hotbed. 

for  a  week.  As  most  fungous  diseases  of  vegetables  thrive 
under  warm,  moist  conditions,  all  greenhouse  crops  should 
be  watered  early  in  the  morning  on  bright  days,  that  the 
foliage  of  the  plants  may  dry  before  night.  The  soil 
should  be  thoroughly  moistened  as  deep  as  the  roots 
extend.  Watering  in  the  evening  not  only  increases  fun- 
gous growth  but  also  tends  to  chill  the  bed  and  thus  in- 
crease the  danger  of  frost. 


HOME   PROJECT  367 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  working  drawing  of  a  hotbed  12  feet  by  6  feet, 
showing  the  back  of  the  frame  6  inches  higher  than  the  front 
and  a  pit  2  feet  deep,  filled  with  12  inches  of   manure,  and 
covered  with  about  4  inches  of  soil. 

2.  If  there  are  any  greenhouses  in  the  neighborhood,  make  a 
trip  to  see  them,  taking  notes  on  the  method  of  heating,  width  of 
glass,  ventilation,  and  the  crops  raised. 

3.  Draw  a  diagram  of  a  cold  frame  to  grow  tomato  plants. 

4.  What  are  the  principal  requirements  of  a  good  soil  for 
greenhouses  ? 

SCHOOL   GARDEN  WORK 

The  class  should  construct  a  hotbed  in  the  school  garden. 
Note  in  detail  the  material  used  in  construction  and  estimate 
the  cost  of  the  material;  also  describe  the  general  method  of 
procedure  in  its  construction.  Insert  a  soil  thermometer  in 
the  soil  after  finishing  and  note  the  temperature  of  the  soil 
each  day  until  ready  for  seeding. 

HOME   PROJECT 

Make  a  working  drawing  of  a  hotbed  covering  at  least  36 
square  feet  of  space.  Estimate  the  material  required  for  the 
same.  Construct  the  hotbed  at  least  a  month  before  outdoor 
planting  weather.  Sow  tomato,  cabbage,  celery,  cantaloupe, 
and  other  vegetable  seeds  to  produce  a  sufficient  supply  of  these 
plants  for  the  home  garden.  Seed  the  remainder  of  the  bed  to 
lettuce  and  radish.  Ventilate,  water,  and  otherwise  care  for 
the  bed  as  outlined  in  the  text.  Transplant  at  the  proper  time, 
and  harden  plants  before  transplanting  to  the  field.  Keep  an 
accurate  record  of  each  day's  work. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

SEED   SOWING   AND   TRANSPLANTING 

SUCCESS  in  vegetable  gardening  depends  primarily  upon 
good  seed.  The  most  fertile  soil  and  the  best  care  cannot 
produce  profitable  crops  with  poor  seed.  Good  seed  must 
possess  the  following  essential  requisites : 

1.  Must  be  true  to  name.     It  is  usually  easy  to  tell  by 
the  external  characters  the  kind  of  seed,  although  one  can- 
not determine  the  variety. 

2.  Must  be  viable;   that  is,  a  large  percentage  of  seeds 
should  under  favorable  conditions  produce  vigorous  plants. 

3.  Must  be  free  from  weed  seeds  and  other  impurities. 
Seed    Sowing.  —  In    sowing    seeds,     success    depends 

largely  upon  the  proper  preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  If 
the  soil  is  coarse  and  lumpy,  a  good  stand  of  plants  cannot 
be  obtained.  Each  particle  of  soil  is  surrounded  with  a 
film  of  water,  and  when  a  large  number  of  these  are  brought 
into  direct  contact  with  the  seed,  a  sufficient  supply  of 
moisture  is  assured.  If  the  soil  is  a  stiff  clay,  devoid  of 
humus,  and  firmly  packed,  the  seeds  will  also  fail  to  grow 
because  of  the  lack  of  air.  A  soil  well  filled  with  humus 
should  be  selected. 

The  time  to  sow  vegetable  seeds  depends  largely  upon 
the  temperature  of  the  soil  and  the  time  it  is  desired  to 
market  the  crop.  Seeds,  such  as  lettuce,  beets,  and  onions, 
will  germinate  at  a  temperature  of  50°,  while  other  seeds, 
as  tomato,  eggplant,  and  beans,  require  a  much  higher 

368 


SEED   SOWING 


369 


temperature.  Hence,  the  former  crops  may  be  planted 
early  in  the  spring,  while  the  latter  should  not  be  sown 
until  the  soil  becomes  thoroughly  warmed  and  there 
is  less  danger  of  subsequent  cold  spells.  Seed  should  be 
sown  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  soil  is  prepared.  Bet- 
ter results  are  always  obtained  from  sowing  seed  in  freshly 
stirred  soil. 

The  depth  of  sowing  depends  largely  upon  the  size  of 
the  seed,  the  season,  and  the  character  of  the  soil.  Large 
seeds  may  be  planted  deeper  than  small  seeds.  With  some 
of  the  smaller  seeds, 
as  celery,  it  is  a 
common  practice 
simply  to  scatter  the 
seed  on  the  surface 
of  the  soil  and  press 
it  in.  In  light  soils, 
the  depth  of  plant- 
ing may  be  consider- 
ably greater  than 
in  heavy  soils.  In 
early  spring,  since 
the  soil  is  usually 
very  moist,  seed  is 
planted  nearer  the 
surface  than  in  sum- 
mer and  fall  seeding. 

With  non-cultivated  crops,  broadcasting  is  often  desir- 
able. All  cultivated  crops  are  sown  in  drills.  Seeds  sown 
in  this  manner  are  at  a  more  uniform  depth  and  distance 
apart,  and  the  plants  may  be  cultivated,  thinned,  and  cared 
for  systematically.  When  the  seed  is  sown  by  machines, 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD.  —  24 


Fig.   192.  —  A  seed  drill. 


370  SEED   SOWING  AND   TRANSPLANTING 

there  is  little  difficulty  in  getting  the  rows  perfectly  straight 
and  a  uniform  distance  apart.  In  the  home  garden,  lines 
should  be  used  to  secure  straight  rows.  The  seed  should 
be  dropped  at  a  uniform  distance  in  the  furrow.  Seed 
drills  may  be  regulated  to  do  this,  but  in  hand  seeding,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  exercise  care  to  secure  an  even  dis- 
tribution. After  seeding,  the  furrows  may  be  closed  with 
the  rake  or  hoe.  With  seeding  machines,  a  roller  at- 
tachment is  generally  used  to  firm  the  soil,  but  in  hand 
seeding  the  soil  can  be  pressed  with  the  back  of  the  hoe. 

Transplanting.  —  Many  of  the  vegetable  crops  are 
started  in  seed  boxes  or  beds  and  later  transplanted  to 
their  permanent  quarters.  In  the  arid  regions,  transplant- 
ing is  not  practiced  so  much  as  in  the  more  humid  sections 
where  the  weather  conditions  are  more  favorable  for  growth. 
Some  of  the  most  important  reasons  for  transplanting 
are  the  following : 

1.  Crops  such  as  tomatoes,  cabbage,  celery,  and  lettuce 
can  be  started  very  much  earlier  in  the  spring  in  hotbeds 
or  greenhouses  and  later  transplanted  to  the  field. 

2.  Crops  do  not  require  as  much  space  during  the  first 
few  weeks  of  their  growth  and  hence  larger  areas  may  be 
used  for  other  crops.     In  this  manner,  two  or  more  crops 
may  often  be  produced  in  a  single  season  from  the  same 
area. 

3.  Transplanting  generally  produces  a  more  fibrous  root 
system.     In  transplanting,  the  taproot  and  many  of  the 
small,  tender  lateral  roots  are  broken,  causing  a  branching 
of  these  roots. 

4.  The  soil  for  seeding  may  be  prepared  extremely  fine 
and  the  temperature  definitely  controlled.     The  seedlings 
may  be  easily  and  carefully  watered  at  the  proper  time. 


TRANSPLANTING  371 

These  advantages  make  it  advisable  to  transplant  cer- 
tain vegetables  into  temporary  quarters  before  the  final 
transplanting  into  beds  or  fields.  If  celery,  cabbage,  or 
tomato  plants  are  transplanted  once  before  setting  in  the 
field,  a  better  stand  of  plants  is  obtained. 

Plants  which  have  many  small,  fibrous  roots  can  be  trans- 
planted most  successfully.  Cabbage,  lettuce,  and  celery 
possess  such  root  systems,  while  peas,  melons,  and  other 
plants  having  relatively  few  fibrous  roots  are  most  difficult 
to  transplant. 

The  plants  should  be  set  slightly  deeper  than  they  stood 
in  the  seed  bed.  There  is  less  danger  of  setting  too  deep 
than  too  shallow.  When  the  plants  are  tall  and  spindling, 
it  is  especially  desirable  to  set  them  deep.  Plants  should 
be  watered  an  hour  or  two  before  digging,  and  if  the  weather 
is  hot  and  dry,  should  be  kept  well  shaded  until  ready  for 
setting.  Just  before  a  rain  or  during  a  dark,  cloudy  day  is 
the  most  favorable  time  for  transplanting.  When  large 
numbers  of  plants  must  be  set,  transplanting  must  be  done 
at  all  times  of  the  day  regardless  of  the  weather  conditions. 
If  the  soil  is  exceedingly  dry,  it  should  be  watered  before 
the  plants  are  set.  An  opening  in  the  soil  is  then  made 
with  the  dibble  or  trowel  large  enough  to  accommodate 
the  root  system  of  the  plant  without  crowding.  The 
plant  is  set  with  its  roots  well  spread  in  the  hole  and  the 
soil  pressed  firmly  about  it. 

Transplanting  machines  are  often  used  where  large 
numbers  of  plants  are  to  be  set.  These  machines  do  the 
work  better,  more  rapidly,  and  with  less  expense  than  is 
commonly  done  by  hand.  A  narrow  shovel  on  the  ma- 
chine opens  a  furrow,  while  two  men  seated  behind  alter- 
nately drop  the  plants  into  this  furrow.  As  each  plant 


372 


SEED   SOWING  AND   TRANSPLANTING 


is  dropped,  a  pint  or  more  of  water  from  a  tank  on  the 
machine  is  dropped  with  each  plant,  and  rollers,  which 
follow  behind,  press  the  soil  back  into  place. 

Flats.  —  Shallow  boxes  commonly  known  as  flats  are 
used  in  sowing  and  transplanting  early  crops.  They  are 
made  of  any  convenient  size,  depending  largely  upon  the 
width  of  the  greenhouse  benches.  They  are  usually  about 


Fig.   193.  —  Tomato  seedlings  in  a  gardener's  flat ;   cucumber  seedlings  in  poU. 

two  and  a  half  inches  deep  and  of  such  a  width  and  length 
as  to  be  easily  handled.  A  convenient  flat  may  be  made 
with  end  pieces  three  fourths  of  an  inch  thick  and  the  sides 
and  bottoms  half  an  inch  thick.  One  fourth  inch  cracks 
should  be  left  between  the  bottom  pieces  to  provide  drainage. 
In  growing  crops  in  hotbeds,  flats  are  especially  serviceable, 
as  seed  sowing  and  transplanting  may  be  done  indoors. 


FLATS  373 

Flats  should  be  filled  with  soil  of  good  texture  and  moist 
enough  to  work  well.  In  filling  flats,  it  is  important  that 
the  soil  be  made  perfectly  level,  for  otherwise  the  seed  will 
be  washed  in  watering.  With  a  straight-edge  about  a 
half  inch  thick  small  furrows  about  one  and  a  half  inches 
apart  and  a  fourth  of  an  inch  deep  should  be  made  for 
the  seed,  beginning  about  half  an  inch  from  the  end  of 
the  flat.  After  the  seed  has  been  carefully  distributed  in 
these  furrows,  it  should  be  covered  with  a  little  soil  which 
should  afterwards  be  firmly  pressed  down.  The  flat  should 
then  be  watered  and  placed  in  the  greenhouse  or  hotbed. 

As  soon  as  the  true  leaves  are  formed  the  seedlings  may 
be  transplanted  to  other  flats  in  which  well-decomposed 
manure  has  been  placed  in  the  bottom  and  afterwards  filled 
with  soil  even  with  the  top  of  the  box.  After  leveling  and 
pressing  down,  the  surface  of  the  soil  should  be  about 
half  an  inch  below  the  top  of  the  flat.  The  plants  are  then 
set  in  straight  rows  both  ways.  The  flat  should  be  set  in 
a  cool,  shady  place  for  a  day  and  then  transferred  to  the 
greenhouse,  hotbeds,  or  cold  frames. 

Before  such  plants  are  transplanted  out  of  doors  they 
should  be  hardened.  If  they  are  planted  directly  from  the 
greenhouse  or  hotbeds  to  the  field,  the  soft,  tender  tissues 
of  the  plants  cannot  endure  the  low  temperature  and  the 
cool,  drying  winds.  In  hardening  them,  water  should  be 
applied  sparingly  and  air  admitted  to  the  frames  more  and 
more  each  day,  until  finally  the  sash  is  removed  entirely 
during  the  day  and  replaced  again  at  night.  Such  plants 
as  cabbage,  celery,  and  other  hardy  vegetables,  if  properly 
hardened  before  transplanting,  will  endure  freezing,  but 
if  they  are  not  properly  hardened,  they  will  be  injured  by 
slight  frosts. 


374  SEED    SOWING   AND   TRANSPLANTING 

TIME   AND   METHOD   OF   PLANTING   SKKDS 


SEEDS 

TIME 

DISTANCE 
BETWEEN 
Rows 

DISTANCE  APART 
IN  Row 

DEPTH  OF 
PLANTING 

Beans  .... 

After     frost 

danger 

2ft. 

3-4  in. 

2  in. 

Beets   .... 

Early 

2ft. 

3  m. 

i  in. 

Cabbage  .     .     . 

Early 

3ft. 

2ft. 

Transplant 

Sweet  corn    . 

Early 

3ft. 

2jft 

2  in. 

Cucumbers    .     . 

After  frost 

4  ft. 

\  in.  6-8  seeds 

Lettuce     .     .     . 

Early 

i  ft. 

Jin. 

Jin. 

Melons 

After  frost 

4ft. 

4  ft. 

i  in.  6-8  seeds 

Onion  sets 

Early 

i  ft. 

2  in. 

2  in. 

Peas     .... 

Early 

2ft. 

i  in. 

2  in. 

Radishes  .     .     . 

Early 

I   ft. 

Jin. 

i  in. 

Spinach    .     .     . 

Early 

I   ft. 

tin. 

iin. 

Sweet  potato 

After  frost 

3-4  ft. 

12  in. 

Transplant    on 

ridge 

Turnip      .     .     . 

Early     and 

late 

2ft. 

3-4  m. 

i  in. 

Tomato    .     .     . 

After  frost 

4ft. 

3-6  ft. 

Transplant 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  the  three  essential  requisites  of  good  seed.     Which 
one  of  these  do  you  consider  of  most  importance  ? 

2.  Examine  samples  of  commercial  seed  bought  at  the  local 
market  for  evidences  of  weed  seeds,  grit,  and  other  impurities. 
Determine  the  per  cent  of  each  by  weight. 

3.  How  do  you  plant  seeds  at  home?     Do  you  plant  them 
all  at  the  same  depth? 

4.  Name  the  four  important  advantages  of  transplanting. 
Which  one  of  these  is  the  one  for  which  most  of  the  transplanting 
is  done  in  your  locality  ? 

5.  Why  should  plants  not  be  set  out  in  the  heat  of  the  day? 

6.  Explain  the  proper  method  of  filling  a  flat  with  soil.     Of 
sowing  seeds  in  flats.     Of  transplanting. 


SCHOOL   GARDEN  WORK  375 

y 

SCHOOL   GARDEN  WORK 

(Each  student  should  be  assigned  a  definite  space  in  the 
hotbed  for  starting  early  plants.  It  will  prove  more  convenient 
if  the  seeds  are  sown  into  flats  rather  than  directly  into  the 
hotbed  soil.  Cabbage,  tomatoes,  cauliflower,  celery,  lettuce, 
and  such  other  crops  as  are  desirable  for  transplanting  to  the 
garden  should  be  seeded  at  such  times  as  to  be  of  good  size 
at  the  proper  period  for  transplanting  out  of  doors. 

Each  student  should  be  supplied  with  a  separate  flat.  A 
flat  12  inches  wide,  20  inches  long,  and  3  inches  deep  is  con- 
venient.) 

Take  one  part  of  good  garden  soil,  two  parts  of  sand,  and 
mix  thoroughly.  Sift  the  mixed  soil  through  a  sieve  of  about 
a  quarter-inch  mesh  and  spread  the  lumps  over  the  bottom  of 
the  flat  for  drainage.  Fill  with  loose,  fine  soil  even  with  the 
top  of  the  flat  and  press  down  firmly  and  evenly  with  a  block. 
Beginning  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  from  the  right-hand 
end  of  the  flat,  make  a  shallow  drill  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
deep  with  a  small  straight  stick  that  is  about  half  an  inch  thick. 
Distribute  the  seeds  evenly  in  the  drill  so  that  they  are  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart.  On  a  small  garden  label,  write 
your  name  or  number  on  one  side  and  the  name  and  variety 
of  vegetable,  together  with  the  date,  on  the  other  side.  Place 
this  label  at  the  head  of  the  row  in  the  flat. 

About  one  and  a  half  inches  from  the  first  row,  the  second 
drill  may  be  made  and  likewise  the  remainder  of  the  flat  may 
be  filled.  Label  each  row,  if  sown  with  a  different  kind  of 
vegetable. 

Cover  the  seed  by  sifting  a  little  fine  soil  evenly  over  the  flat 
and  afterwards  pressing  it  firmly  with  the  block.  Water  gently 
to  prevent  washing  and  set  the  flat  in  the  hotbeds  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  be  perfectly  level;  otherwise,  future  waterings 
will  wash  the  seeds  to  the  lower  side. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

HARVESTING,    MARKETING,    AND    STORING 
VEGETABLES 

Harvesting.  —  As  market  gardeners  usually  market 
several  kinds  of  produce  at  the  same  time,  the  harvesting 
and  packing  of  these  crops  is  a  complex  proposition.  The 
vegetables  are  usually  harvested  in  the  field,  placed  in 
special  picking  baskets  or  crates,  and  afterwards  hauled  to 
the  packing  house,  where  they  are  carefully  sorted,  graded, 
and  packed  for  the  market.  Women  are  frequently  em- 
ployed for  this  work  and  are  generally  neater  and  more 
expert  than  men. 

Packages.  —  It  is  often  said  that  the  package  sells  the 
product.  A  neat,  attractive  package  should  always  be 
selected.  It  should  be  of  such  size  as  to  be  most  con- 
venient to  handle  and  pack  on  wagon  or  car.  It  should  be 
of  such  a  character  as  to  prevent  bruising,  heating,  or  other 
injury  to  the  contents.  Few  containers  are  returned  to 
the  growers  and  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  inexpensive. 
The  style  of  the  container  varies  with  market  demands, 
and  the  container  used  for  a  crop  in  one  section  is  often  very 
different  from  that  used  in  marketing  the  same  crop  in 
other  sections.  As  a  rule,  in  shipping  first-class  products, 
the  smaller  packages  are  desirable.  The  tendency  in 
marketing  to-day  is  to  ship  in  such  a  package  that  the 
produce  may  be  sold  direct  to  the  consumer  without  re- 
handling  or  repacking. 

376 


MARKETING 


377 


Marketing. -- The  profits  in  vegetable  growing  depend 
as  much  upon  methods  of  marketing  as  upon  methods  of 
cultivation.  Many  gardeners  are  expert  growers  but  poor 
market  men.  The  details  of  marketing  are  just  as  im- 


Fig.   194.  —  A  good  crop  of  tomatoes  ready  to  be  harvested. 

portant  as  the  details  of  production  and  must  be  as  thor- 
oughly mastered  if  the  greatest  profits  are  to  be  realized. 

The  success  of  a  grower  depends  largely  upon  his  ability 
to  produce  crops  that  satisfy  the  consumer.  The  user  is 
the  final  judge.  Quality  is  the  first  essential.  Vegetables  of 
high  quality  are  often  packed  and  shipped  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  spoil  their  market  value.  The  appearance  of  the 
product  as  presented  to  the  consumer  is  also  important. 


378    HARVESTING   AND   MARKETING   VEGETABLES 

The  product  should  be  graded  as  to  size,  color,  ripeness, 
and  soundness,  and  packed  in  attractive  receptacles.  Be- 
sides these  considerations,  it  is  of  great  importance  to 


Fig.  195.  —  Preparing  vegetables  and  fruits  for  market. 

place  the  products  on  the   market  when  the  consumer  is 
most  anxious  to  purchase  them. 

Cooperation. -- The  problems  of  marketing  may  often 
best  be  solved  by  the  growers  forming  a  cooperative  or- 
ganization. In  this  way,  the  marketing  is  placed  in  the 
hands  of  an  experienced  manager  who  possesses  ability  for 
this  work.  This  is  advisable  in  localities  devoting  their 
attention  to  the  growing  of  one  kind  of  crop.  As  a  rule, 
cooperative  associations  are  formed  mainly  for  the  purpose 
of  selling  produce,  but  they  may  also  buy  fertilizers,  pack- 
ages, and  other  supplies  for  members,  and  build  storage 
and  packing  houses  for  the  produce.  Such  associations 
are  found  to-day  in  many  sections  of  the  country.  The 


DISTRIBUTION  379 

management  of  the  association  is  generally  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a  board  of  directors,  who  are  elected  by  the  mem- 
bers, and  who  in  turn  appoint  a  manager.  The  manager 
may  be  hired  on  a  salary  or  on  a  commission  basis,  and  in 
the  larger  association,  he  gives  all  his  time  to  the  work. 
In  the  smaller  association,  he  usually  works  on  a  com- 
mission basis. 

Distribution.  —  One  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  co- 
operative organizations  is  that  they  insure  a  proper  dis- 
tribution of  the  crops.  Good  distribution  is  almost  im- 
possible without  organization.  If  the  shipping  of  the  crop 
is  in  the  hands  of  one  man  who  is  in  close  touch  with  the 
supply  and  demand  of  each  market,  slumps  in  prices  due 
to  glutted  markets  may  be  successfully  avoided. 

Cooperative  associations  relieve  the  producer  of  the 
details  and  troubles  associated  with  marketing  problems. 
He  can  then  devote  all  his  energies  to  the  producing  end 
of  the  business.  Associations  should  be  able  also  to  sell 
at  uniformly  higher  prices  than  an  individual  producer,  as 
a  manager  is  able  to  keep  in  closer  touch  with  the  various 
markets,  especially  of  the  larger  consuming  centers.  Ship- 
ments can  be  made  on  a  larger  scale,  which  means  a  greater 
saving  in  the  cost  of  shipping  as  well  as  better  transpor- 
tation. Better  prices  are  also  obtained  because  the  prod- 
uct may  be  uniformly  packed  under  strict  rules  by  laborers 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  manager.  Uniformity 
in  packages  means  the  establishment  of  a  reputation,  and 
consequently  a  greater  demand  for  the  product.  Indirectly, 
organizations  have  resulted  in  bringing  the  growers  closer 
together.  They  become  interested  in  each  other's  crops, 
and  by  the  mutual  exchange  of  ideas,  become  more  intel- 
ligent and  successful  producers. 


380     HARVESTING   AND    MARKETING    VEGETABLES 


Fig.   196.  —  An  onion  storage  house. 


Storage.  -—  Many  of  our  vegetables  are  marketed  as 
soon  as  possible  after  harvesting,  while  others  are  stored 
for  short  or  long  periods. 

Moisture,  temperature,  and  fresh  air  are  the  three 
storage  factors  that  must  be  controlled.  Root  crops  must 

be  kept  moist  to 
preserve  their  firm- 
ness and  freshness, 
but  onions  must  be 
kept  dry  in  order  to 
prevent  their  decay. 
The  temperature 
must  be  kept  high 
for  squashes,  but 
for  cabbages  and 
onions  it  is  impor- 
tant to  keep  it  just  above  the  freezing  point.  Thorough 
ventilation  is  also  necessary. 

Vegetables  that  are  to  be  stored  should  be  mature  and 
free  from  disease  and  mechanical  injury.  Cabbages  are 
harvested  just  before  they  have  matured,  but  onions, 
squashes,  and  many  other  crops  should  be  well  matured 
before  storing.  The  construction  of  storage  houses  should 
vary  with  the  kind  of  crops  to  be  stored.  Many  of  the 
vegetables  grown  in  the  home  garden  may  be  successfully 
stored  in  the  house  cellar  if  moisture,  temperature,  and 
ventilation  can  be  controlled.  Many  cellars,  however,  are 
too  warm  and  dry  for  the  successful  storing  of  these  crops. 
When  storing  on  a  small  scale,  pits  are  frequently  used, 
and  being  inexpensive  and  easily  constructed,  are  very 
satisfactory.  Beets,  carrots,  and  other  root  crops  are 
frequently  buried  out  of  doors.  These  crops  are  placed 


EXERCISES  381 

in  long  piles  two  or  three  feet  high  and  three  or  four  feet 
wide  at  the  base.  These  piles  are  covered  with  straw, 
and  after  the  weather  becomes  colder  they  are  further 
protected  from  freezing  by  a  covering  of  earth. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  table  showing  the  methods  of  harvesting  and 
marketing  (by  bushel  or  bunch),  and  the  size  of  package  for 
peas,  beans,  carrots,   sweet   corn,  squashes,    onions,  radishes, 
cabbages,  and  beets  in  your  community  and  the  average  price 
per  unit  last  season. 

2.  Design  a  trade-mark  and  label  which  might  be  placed  on 
all  the  goods  you  sell  from  the  farm.     Show  by  color,  shape,  or 
word  that  you  guarantee  your  goods  to  be  true  to  name. 

3.  Are    there    any    cooperative    associations    of    vegetable 
growers  in  your  state? 

4.  Explain   in  detail   the   method  of  harvesting,   grading, 
packing,  and  marketing  of  one  important  vegetable  crop  grown 
in  your  section. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 

Styles. --The  three  principal  styles  of  landscape  gar- 
dening are  the  formal  or  geometrical  style,  the  natural 
style,  and  the  picturesque  style.  The  principles  govern- 
ing each  style  are  so  different  that  they  can  seldom  be 
combined  without  discord.  This  is  especially  true  in 
small  areas,  but  on  large  estates  different  styles  may  be 
used  and  harmoniously  combined. 

The  Formal  or  Geometrical  Style  is  characterized  by  its 
regularity,  symmetry,  and  geometrical  forms.  Trees 
planted  in  rows,  walks  and  drives  laid  either  in  straight 
lines  or  geometrical  curves,  and  water  in  fountains  or  basins 
are  all  characteristic  features  of  the  formal  garden. 

The  Natural  Style  is  especially  adapted  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  farm  home  grounds.  The  principal  character- 
istics of  this  style  are  large,  open  lawns  of  graceful  curving 
surfaces ;  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowering  plants  naturally  dis- 
posed; and  walks  laid  out  with  simple,  pleasing  curves. 
All  forms  in  this  style  of  landscape  design  should  be  free, 
flowing,  and  graceful,  thus  producing  a  natural  effect. 

The  Picturesque  Style  also  aims  to  produce  natural  ef- 
fects although  its  method  and  style  of  presentation  are 
quite  different.  Abrupt  lines  and  irregular  forms  and 
figures  are  used  rather  than  the  smooth,  simple,  flowing 
lines  of  the  natural  style.  Irregular  groups  of  wind- 
swept pines  on  the  top  of  a  barren  hillside  with  broken 

382 


PICTURESQUE    STYLE 


383 


384  LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 

banks  and  steep  ravines  present  a  picturesque  type  of 
beauty.  This  spirit  of  boldness,  irregularity,  and  wild- 
ness  may  be  enhanced  in  the  designing  of  walks  and  drives 
and  even  in  the  buildings  themselves  when  improving  such 
landscape  scenes  by  the  picturesque  style. 

Each  style  of  landscape  gardening  may  be  introduced 
with  good  effect  in  appropriate  surroundings.  In  public 
squares  or  about  stately  buildings  where  gardens  of  a 
highly  pretentious  and  elaborate  character  are  desirable, 
the  formal  style  is  most  suitable.  Very  frequently,  too, 
in  small  gardens  where  variety  and  naturalness  are  impos- 
sible because  of  limited  size,  the  formal  garden  is  most 
appropriate.  In  the  country  where  the  surroundings  are 
natural,  either  the  picturesque  or  natural  style  is  suitable. 
Where  the  land  is  rough  and  abrupt,  or  where  some  large 
bowlder  or  irregular  group  of  trees  determines  the  site,  the 
picturesque  style  may  be  desirable ;  while  in  districts 
where. the  land  is  gently  rolling  and  covered  with  maples, 
elms,  and  other  smooth,  round-topped  trees,  the  natural 
style  is  to  be  preferred. 

The  purpose  of  landscape  gardening  is  to  arrange  the 
buildings,  walks,  drives,  lawns,  and  plantings  so  that 
they  will  best  serve  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  in- 
tended and  still  be  combined  in  a  pleasing  manner.  All 
home  grounds  possess  elements  of  natural  beauty,  and  the 
landscape  gardener  should  perceive  and  enhance  this 
natural  beauty  rather  than  attempt  to  create  a  different 
type. 

Selection  of  Building  Sites.  —  In  the  selection  of  build- 
ing sites  there  are  three  things  to  be  kept  in  mind  ;  namely, 
soil  drainage,  air  drainage,  and  exposure.  A  well-drained 
soil  is  the  first  requisite.  Air  drainage  is  of  nearly  equal 


SELECTION  OF   BUILDING   SITES 


385 


importance.  Hollows  in  which  cold,  damp  air  collects 
are  to  be  avoided.  It  is  also  important  to  select  a  site 
that  is  protected  from  the  cold  winds  of  winter. 

It  is  important  that  the  barns  be  well  away  from  the 
house  and  so  placed  that  the  prevailing  winds  will  carry 


4QRODS- 


Fig.  198.  —  Arrangement  of  grounds  surrounding  a  farmhouse. 

the  odor  of  the  stables  away  from  the  house.  The  house 
should  be  situated  some  little  distance  back  from  the  road 
and  so  placed  as  to  have  a  commanding  view  of  the  coun- 
try around. 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD.  —  2$ 


386  LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 

Walks  and  Drives.  —  Walks  and  drives  are  elements 
of  necessity  rather  than  of  beauty  and  should  be  so  de- 
signed as  to  be  convenient  and  direct.  Dividing  the  grounds 
by  walks  or  drives  not  only  tends  to  destroy  the  unity  of 
the  design,  but  also  to  diminish  the  apparent  size  of  the 
area  through  which  they  pass.  Every  precaution  should  be 
taken  to  preserve  an  open  lawn,  especially  in  front  of  the 
house.  Roads  and  walks  should  be  kept  well  to  the  bound- 


Fig.  199.  —  Driveway  leading  up  to  a  farmhouse. 

aries  wherever  possible.  Whether  they  should  be  straight 
or  curved  depends  largely  upon  the  size  of  the  grounds, 
the  contour  of  the  land,  and  the  general  style  of  treatment. 
On  areas  of  limited  size,  all  walks  and  drives  should  be 
straight  unless  the  contour  of  the  land  is  such  as  to  make 
curved  ones  more  convenient.  On  larger  areas  curved 
walks  and  drives  are  more  pleasing  and  graceful  and  should 
be  used  since  they  do  not  destroy  the  unity  of  the  design. 


LAWN  FERTILIZERS  387 

The  Lawn.  —  The  lawn  adds  much  both  to  the  appear- 
ance and  value  of  the  property.  Before  trees,  shrubs,  and 
flowers  can  be  properly  arranged  a  good  lawn  is  necessary. 
Its  construction,  therefore,  deserves  most  careful  consider- 
ation. 

In  the  grading  of  the  lawn  one  should  endeavor  to  ob- 
tain good  surface  drainage.  Except  in  formal  work  a  level 
lawn  should  never  be  produced.  It  lacks  the  naturalness 
and  variety  that  a  lawn  should  possess.  In  grading  a  lawn 
the  natural  slopes  and  curves  of  the  land  should  be  pre- 
served. Nature  seldom  produces  perfectly  level  surfaces. 

After  the  general  slopes  have  been  established,  the  land 
should  be  re-harrowed  and  the  small,  uneven  places  smoothed 
off.  If  the  grading  is  begun  in  the  fall  and  the  land  is  then 
allowed  to  lie  over  winter,  the  soil  will  have  become  well 
settled  by  spring  and  will  be  ready  for  the  final  grading 
before  seeding  and  planting. 

A  good  soil  is  the  first  requisite  in  the  construction  of  a 
permanent  lawn.  In  changing  a  grade  the  top  soil  should 
first  be  carefully  removed,  the  fill  or  cut  made,  and  the  top 
soil  then  replaced.  After  the  grades  have  been  established 
the  soil  should  be  thoroughly  rolled  and  the  small,  uneven 
spots  smoothed  off  with  a  hand  rake  and  by  a  second  roll- 
ing the  surface  made  smooth  and  even. 

Lawn  Fertilizers.  —  If  barnyard  manure  is  to  be  used  it 
should  be  plowed  under  or  harrowed  into  the  soil.  Fresh 
manure  is  likely  to  contain  weed  seeds  and  its  use  should  be 
avoided. 

A  commercial  fertilizer  may  be  used  to  advantage  after 
the  grass  is  well  started,  but  it  should  never  be  applied  at 
seeding  time,  as  it  may  injure  the  young  plants  that  come 
in  contact  with  it  during  germination.  Commercial  fer- 


388 


LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 


KINDS   OF  LAWN   GRASS  389 

tilizers  are  easy  to  apply,  contain  no  weed  seeds,  and  may 
be  readily  procured.  Some  of  the  most  popular  forms  of 
commercial  fertilizers  for  lawns  are  ground  bone,  wood 
ashes,  and  high-grade  complete  fertilizers. 

Kinds  of  Lawn  Grass. --The  best  grass  for  lawns  is 
the  Kentucky  blue  grass.  Although  this  grass  is  rather 
slow  in  starting,  it  produces  a  permanent  lawn  of  fine 
texture  and  of  a  rich  green  color.  The  crown  of  the  plant 
sets  very  close  to  the  ground  and  thus  permits  close  clip- 
ping. After  getting  well  established,  Kentucky  blue  grass 
spreads  very  rapidly  by  underground  rootstalks. 

Of  the  rapid  growing  kinds  that  may  be  used  for  quick 
effect  English  rye  grass  is  one  of  the  best.  Although  coarse 
in  leaf  it  starts  rapidly  into  growth,  and  covers  the  ground 
which  might  otherwise  be  taken  up  by  weeds.  Redtop 
is  another  quick-growing  grass,  producing  a  good  lawn  ef- 
fect the  first  season.  It  is  of  finer  texture  than  rye  grass 
but  does  not  grow  so  rapidly.  It  is  especially  valuable 
upon  poorer  soils,  in  which  it  seems  to  thrive  better  than 
most  other  grasses.  White  clover  is  frequently  used  on 
lawns  and  makes  very  rapid  growth.  A  mixture  of  blue 
grass,  redtop,  and  white  clover  is  excellent  for  new  lawns. 
Bermuda  grass  is  especially  popular  in  the  Southern  States, 
but  is  easily  killed  by  frosts.  On  very  sandy  soil  the 
Rhode  Island  bent  grass  thrives  well,  while  in  very  shady 
places  the  woodland  meadow  grass  may  be  used. 

Grass  seed  is  likely  to  contain  weed  seeds  that  will  prove 
troublesome.  It  is  best  to  buy  lawn  grass  seed  from  a  re- 
liable seedsman  and  to  purchase  only  the  purest  grades  on 
the  market.  If  a  large  quantity  is  to  be  secured,  a  sample 
should  be  sent  to  the  state  experiment  station  to  be  tested 
for  purity. 


3QO  LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 

Sowing  Lawn  Seed.  —  In -seeding  a  lawn,  at  least  fifty 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  should  be  used.  Thick  seeding 
chokes  out  weeds  and  helps  to  produce  a  quick  result. 
The  seed  should  be  sown  when  no  wind  is  stirring,  pref- 
erably early  in  the  morning  or  late  in  the  evening.  To 
insure  an  even  stand  the  seed  should  be  divided  into  two 
equal  parts.  One  part  should  be  scattered  lengthwise  and 
the  other  crosswise  of  the  lawn. 

After  sowing  the  seed,  unless  followed  by  rain,  the  soil 
should  be  rolled.  Raking  or  harrowing  the  soil  after 
seeding  is  likely  to  bury  the  seed  unevenly. 

Mowing  the  Lawn.  —  After  the  grass  has  grown  to  a 
height  of  from  four  to  six  inches  it  should  be  given  the 
first  clipping.  Future  cuttings  should  be  made  frequently 
enough  to  permit  the  clippings  to  remain  on  the  lawn. 
These  clippings  form  a  mulch  around  the  base  of  the  plants 
and  protect  them  from  drying  out  during  the  summer 
months.  Close  cutting  is  a  bad  practice  as  all  of  the 
foliage  is  cut  away  and  the  soil  about  the  roots  is  exposed 
directly  to  the  wind  and  sun. 

Planting  the  Grounds.  —  The  laying  out  and  planting 
the  grounds  is  usually  of  more  importance  than  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  buildings.  Very  ordinary  looking  buildings 
may  be  made  attractive  and  homelike  if  the  planting  is 
properly  done.  Indeed  the  less  prominent  the  architec- 
tural features  the  greater  is  the  relative  importance  of 
planting.  To  unite  the  house  with  the  roads,  walks, 
lawns,  and  other  surrounding  features  into  one  harmonious 
whole  is  the  leading  function  of  plantings. 

Before  a  planting  plan  is  made,  the  ground  should  be 
studied  with  reference  to  the  arrangement  that  will  prove 
most  serviceable.  The  farm  grounds  consist  of  three  parts, 


PLANTING  THE   GROUNDS  391 

each  having  separate  functions.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
entrance  division.  This  consists  of  the  entrance  roads, 
walks,  and  the  front  lawn,  together  with  all  plantings  bor- 
dering on  the  same.  As  the  impression  gained  from  this 
division  is  the  one  by  which  the  remainder  of  the  property 
is  judged,  its  appearance  is  most  important.  The  front 
yard  should  be  neat  and  simple,  and  of  such  a  character 
as  to  suggest  dignity  and  hospitality.  The  second  division 
is  the  living  division.  It  is  the  out-of-doors  living  room. 
On  the  farm  this  division  is  frequently  combined  with  the 
first,  although  it  is  often  desirable  to  have  this  portion  of 
the  grounds  screened  from  the  entrance  and  service  di- 
visions. The  third  is  the  service  division  and  is  the  most 
necessary  division  of  the  farm  grounds.  It  is  commonly 
called  the  back  yard.  It  is  necessary  to  have  some  place 
for  the  entrance  of  supplies,  the  outgoing  of  wastes,  the 
storage  of  garbage,  ashes,  and  wood,  the  drying  of  clothes, 
and  the  performance  of  other  important  home  duties. 
As  these  are  not  always  pleasing  to  the  sight  it  is  desirable 
that  this  division  be  screened  by  plantings  from  the  other 
divisions  of  the  grounds. 

The  design  on  the  following  page  shows  a  desirable  loca- 
tion for  a  house  and  barn  on  a  small  suburban  lot  in  reference 
to  the  exposure  and  distances  from  the  sides  and  front  of 
the  lot.  The  first  number  in  the  mass  plantings  indicates 
the  number  of  plants  to  be  used,  the  dots  showing  the  loca- 
tion of  each,  while  the  number  after  the  dash  is  the  index 
number  of  the  kind  to  be  used. 

The  drive  is  so  designed  and  planted  as  to  screen  the 
view  of  the  barn  and  its  service  yard  from  the  road.  The 
plantings  consist  largely  of  masses  of  hardy  shrubs  disposed 
around  the  foundation  of  the  house,  the  boundaries  and 


392 


L. \\nsr\pK  C;ARDENING 


Fig.  201.  —  Properly  planned  home  grounds.     (For  explanation  of  numbers  < 
opposite  page.) 


PLANTING   THE    GROUNDS 


393 


corners  of  the  lot,  leaving  an  unbroken  lawn  in  front  and  a 
well  screened  and  protected  back  lawn.  A  few  trees  are 
so  disposed  as  to  frame  the  view  of  the  house  from  the  road, 
to  aid  in  screening  the  barn  and  to  produce  some  shade  over 
the  back  lawn.  Hardy  perennials  and  annuals  are  massed 
in  the  foreground  of  the  shrubbery  plantings  about  the 
back  lawn  and  along  the  stepping-stone  walk  leading  to  the 
garden  and  back  of  the  lot. 


INDEX 
NUMBER 

COMMON  NAME  OF  PLANT 

LATIN  NAME 

i 

Japanese  Barberry 

Berberis  Thunbergii 

2 

Bridal  Wreath  Spirea 

Spir<za  Vanhouttei 

3 

Tartarian  Honeysuckle 

Lomcera  Tartarica  var.  grand,  rosea 

4 

Japanese  Rose 

Rosa  Rugosa 

5 

Lilac 

Syringa  (In  "variety] 

6 

Peony 

P&onia  (In  variety) 

7 

German  Iris 

Iris  Germanica  (In  variety) 

8 

Hard)'  Phlox 

Phlox  decussata  (In  variety) 

9 

Lemoines  Deutzia 

Deutzia  Lemoinei 

10 

Deciduous  Tree 

ii 

Evrergreen 

Another  function  of  plantings  is  to  enhance  the  elements 
of  beauty  already  existing.  The  style  of  architecture  of 
the  house,  the  position  and  character  of  trees  already  on 
the  grounds,  and  the  slope  and  general  topography  of  the 
land  should  all  be  carefully  studied.  The  most  pleasing 
lines  and  portions  of  the  house  should  be  emphasized  and 
carefully  preserved.  A  wide  sweep  of  open  lawn  with  a 
border  and  background  of  trees  and  shrubbery  is  always  a 
pleasing  and  acceptable  sight.  Vistas  beyond  the  grounds, 
as  of  a  distant  wood,  a  winding  river,  or  a  neighboring  farm, 
are  often  welcome  sights  that  add  to  the  pleasure  and 
value  of  the  home.  It  is  especially  important  that  these 


394 


LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 


Fig.  202.  —  An  effective  screen  of  spruce  trees. 

vistas  be  carefully  preserved.  Plantings  should  conceal 
the  defects  and  enhance  the  value  of  those  parts  that  are 
most  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

Mass  Planting. —  To  obtain  the  desired  unity,  character, 
variety,  and  naturalness,  the  gardener  relies  mainly  upon 
the  use  of  masses.  Single  specimens  or  groups  may  be 
sparingly  used,  but  only  to  break  the  monotony  or  to  gain 
some  special  character  in  the  design.  .Masses  must  be 
carefully  designed  to  become  expressive.  The  plants 
composing  the  mass  should  be  selected  with  care.  Each 
mass  should  consist  only  of  a  few  kinds  of  plants.  Where 
the  mass  is  small  it  is  well  to  select  but  one  kind,  while 
in  larger  masses  more  than  one  kind  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage. Even  in  the  larger  masses,  plants  of  the  same 
kind  should  be  grouped  together. 


SELECTING  PLANTS  395 

On  the  home  grounds  the  larger  proportion  of  the  plant- 
ings should  consist  of  hardy  shrubs.  Masses  of  shrubs 
may  be  used  with  excellent  effect  along  the  borders,  in  the 
corners,  and  to  conceal  defects  and  unsightly  places.  At 
the  intersections  of  walks  or  drives  and  where  a  change  in 
the  direction  of  a  walk  is  made,  they  may  also  be  used  to 


Fig.  203.  —  A  farm  home.     To  harmonize  the  building  with  its  surroundings  is  the 
function  of  landscape  gardening. 

advantage.  About  the  base  of  buildings  masses  should 
be  placed  in  such  manner  as  to  harmonize  the  building  with 
its  surroundings. 

Selecting  Plants.  —  After  determining  upon  the  location 
and  size  of  the  masses,  the  plants  best  fitted  to  serve 
these  purposes  should  be  selected.  The  seasonal  effect  is 
a  very  important  consideration.  One  should  endeavor  to 
select  those  kinds  that  are  attractive  during  the  longest 


396  LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 

period  of  the  year  and  which  make  such  a  combination  of 
kinds  as  will  produce  a  continuous  effect.  Fortunately,  all 
plants  do  not  bloom  at  the  same  time ;  and  the  beauty  of 
many  plants  consists  not  alone  in  their  blossoms  but  in 
their  richness  of  foliage,  their  beauty  of  form,  and  their 
highly  colored  fruit.  These  are  the  main  considerations  in 
the  selection  of  plants  for  seasonal  effects. 

EXERCISES 

1 .  Describe  the  three  principal  styles  of  landscape  gardening. 

2.  Which  would  be  most  appropriate  in  the  improvement 
of  your  home  grounds?     Why?     Of  the  school  grounds? 

3.  Describe  a  site  with  which  you  are  familiar  that  would 
be  ideal  for  a  building  site. 

4.  Where  should  the  house  be  placed  with  reference  to  the 
barns  ? 

5.  Why  should  roads  and  walks  be  constructed  only  when 
they  are  essential  ? 

6.  When  is  a  straight  walk  justifiable?     A  curved  walk? 

7.  What  is  the  best  grass  for  lawn  purposes  in  your  locality  ? 

8.  What  grass  would  you  use  in  starting  a  lawn  to  gain  a 
quick  effect  ? 

9.  Describe  some  home  grounds  that  are  planted  in  a  pleas- 
ing manner. 

10.  What  are  the  points  to  consider  in  the  selection  of  the 
kinds  and  varieties  of  plants  to  use  in  beautifying  the  home 
grounds  ? 

11.  Visit  some  of  the  neighboring  home  grounds  and  study 
how  they  might  be  improved  by  a  rearrangement  of  the  plant- 
ings. 

12.  Draw  a  map  of  the  homestead,  showing  lawn,  house, 
garden,  barn,  orchard,  etc.     Make  the  map  scale  large  enough 
so  that  the  details  will  stand  out  clearly. 


HOME   PROJECTS  397 

HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Early  in  the  spring  apply  a  good  dressing  of  well-decom- 
posed manure  to  the  lawn.     Rake  the  coarsest  of  this  off  when 
the  grass  is  just  beginning  to  grow  up  through  it  and  sow  grass 
seed  at  the  rate  of  25  pounds  per  acre.     Roll  the  lawn  care- 
fully.    Mow  it  once  a  week  or  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  permit 
the  clippings  to  remain  without  raking.     Keep  an  accurate 
record  of  each  operation  in  your  notebook. 

2.  Draw  a  plan  of  the  home  grounds  to  a  definite  scale, 
showing  the  location  of  buildings,  existing  walks,  drives,  trees, 
plantings,  and  boundaries.     Re-design  the  walks  and  drives 
if  necessary.     Design  the  plantings  as  explained  in  the  text, 
giving  the  reason  for  the  location,  form,  and  size  of  each.     Pre- 
sent this  plan  to  the  teacher  for  consultation  before  selecting 
the  kinds. 


CHAPTER  XX 


TREES,    SHRUBS,    VINES,    AND    FLOWERS 

Trees.  —  In  selecting  trees  for  home  planting  the  fol- 
lowing requirements  should  be  considered  :  form,  hardiness, 
adaptability,  rapidity  of  growth,  shade  production,  free- 
dom from  insects  and  diseases,  neatness,  and  beauty.  Wild 

trees  may  be  used, 
but  they  are  less 
likely  to  withstand 
the  shock  of  trans- 
planting than  those 
that  have  been  pre- 
viously transplanted 
in  the  nursery. 

The  general 
method  of  planting 
shade  trees  and  the 
precautions  to  be  ob- 
served are  the  same 
as  those  for  plant- 
ing fruit  trees.  (See 
Chapter  X.) 

The  Oaks.  —  Of  all  the  trees  that  may  be  used  on  the 
home  grounds,  the  oaks  are  undoubtedly  the  best.  They 
are  beautiful,  long  lived,  and  little  subject  to  insects  and 
disease.  The  white  oak  is  probably  the  best  known. 
The  red  oak  thrives  on  a  comparatively  poor  soil,  develops 

398 


Fig.  204.  —  A  beautiful  giant  oak  tre 


THE   MAPLES 


399 


a  straight,  sturdy  trunk,  a  symmetrical  top,  and  its  foliage 
turns  a  brilliant  color  in  the  fall.  The  scarlet  oak  is  much 
like  the  red  oak  although  smaller  in  size.  Its  foliage  be- 
comes brilliantly  colored  in  the  fall.  The  pin  oak  grows 
taller  and  more  slender  than  most  other  oaks,  and  has  an 
unusually  straight  stem.  It  is  especially  adapted  for  street 
planting  and  makes  a  very  desirable  lawn  tree. 

The  Elm.  —  The  American  elm  is  the  stateliest  of  trees. 
It  prefers  fertile  soil  and  an  abundance  of  moisture.  Under 
these  conditions,  it 
is  a  comparatively 
rapid  grower.  As  a 
street  tree  it  com- 
bines more  desirable 
qualities  than  any 
other,  although  it 
grows  too  large  for 
narrow  streets. 

The  Maples.— No 
trees  have  been  more 
widely  used  for  plant- 
ing than  the  maples. 
They  are  very  satis- 
factory as  shade,  or- 
namental, or  street 
trees.  The  white, 
silver,  or  soft  maple 
is  largely  planted 
because  of  its  rapid  growth,  although  it  is  a  short-lived 
tree,  very  susceptible  to  borers,  and  subject  to  splitting 
and  breaking.  The  Norway  maple  is  the  best  tree  for 
streets  of  moderate  width  and  is  a  desirable  lawn  tree. 


Fig.  205-  —  A  fine  specimen  of  sugar  maple. 


400          TREES,   SHRUBS,   VINES,   AND    FLOWERS 

It  is  one  of  the  first  maples  to  come  into  foliage  in  the 
spring  and  the  last  to  drop  its  leaves  in  the  fall.  The 
red-leaved  variety  of  the  Norway  maple  is  an  especially 
attractive  tree.  The  common  red  maple  thrives  best  in 
a  moist  soil  and  is  sometimes  used  as  a  street  tree  although 
it  is  more  suitable  for  lawn  planting.  In  the  fall  the 
coloring  of  the  foliage  is  brilliant,  and  in  the  spring  its 
blossoms  make  a  very  attractive  effect.  The  sugar 
maple  is  the  most  widely  known  and  one  of  the  best  of 
all  the  maples.  It  is  a  larger  tree  than  the  Norway  maple 
although  in  many  other  respects  so  much  like  it  that  the 
two  are  often  hard  to  identify.  The  ash-leaved  maple, 
or  box  elder,  is  frequently  planted  as  a  lawn  tree  and  it 
adapts  itself  well  to  adverse  conditions.  It  is  a  short- 
lived tree  and  is  not  recommended  for  general  planting. 

The  Beech. --The  beech  makes  one  of  the  most  at- 
tractive and  beautiful  lawn  trees.  The  American  beech 
is  largely  used,  although  there  are  many  ornamental  forms 
of  the  European  species,  such  as  the  purple-leaved,  cut- 
leaved,  and  drooping  beeches  that  are  also  popular. 

Other  Deciduous  Trees. -- There  are  many  other  de- 
sirable kinds  of  trees  which  are  all  valuable  under  special 
conditions.  When  quick  effects  are  desired,  the  poplars 
are  favorite  trees.  The  graceful  white  birches,  the  golden 
willows,  and  the  stately  sycamores  are  other  attractive 
lawn  trees. 

The  Evergreens.  —  There  are  few  home  grounds  where 
evergreens  cannot  be  advantageously  used  for  producing 
permanent  screens,  windbreaks,  or  hedges.  They  are  very 
valuable  if  planted  sparingly  about  the  lawn,  as  they  con- 
trast well  with  the  deciduous  trees  and  enliven  the  land- 
scape during  the  winter  season.  When  used  too  freely 


THE    SPRUCES 


401 


about  the  grounds,  they  produce  a  somber  effect.  They 
should  never  be  used  near  the  south  or  east  side  of  buildings, 
where  they  may  shade  them  during  the  winter  months. 
When  placed  well  in  the  background  of  shrubs  or  decidu- 
ous trees,  they  give  excellent  results.  The  beauty  of  all 
evergreens  depends  upon  the  preservation  of  a  good  healthy 


Fig.  2-06.  —  A  windbreak  of  Norway  spruce. 

growth  about  the  base  of  the  tree,  whether  they  are  used 
as  hedges,  windbreaks,  or  lawn  specimens. 

The  Spruces.  —  Spruces  are  the  fastest  growing  of  all 
evergreens,  are  very  hardy,  and  for  quick  -effects  are  gen- 
erally the  best.  They  are  much  used  for  windbreaks  and 
hedges  as  well  as  for  lawn  planting.  The  Norway  spruce 
is  one  of  the  best.  It  adapts  itself  well  to  any  soil  and 
almost  any  condition.  The  tree  is  clean,  trim,  and  bright 
both  in  summer  and  winter.  The  trees  grow  big  and 

M.  AND  H.  PLANT  PROD. 26 


402          TREES,   SHRUBS,   VINES,  AND   FLOWERS 

thick  and  will  live  long.  The  Colorado  blue  spruce  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  evergreens.  The  branches  are 
produced  in  whorls  around  the  trunk  and  the  foliage  is 
dense  and  of  an  intense  blue.  It  thrives  in  almost  any 
soil  and  locality,  is  a  vigorous  grower,  and  does  well  in 
cold,  exposed  situations. 

The  Pines.  --  The  white  pine  is  the  most  valuable  species 
of  pines.  The  foliage  is  softer  and  finer  than  that  of  most 
other  evergreens.  The  young  trees  look  trim  and  neat  all 
the  year  round,  and  the  old  ones  are  very  picturesque.  The 
Austrian  pine  is  a  species  that  is  especially  recommended 
for  planting  in  the  Middle  West.  The  growth  is  very  dense 
and  the  trees  grow  to  a  large  size.  Planted  singly  on  the 
lawn  the  trees  produce  a  beautiful  effect,  and  when  planted 
in  groups,  the  dark  foliage  shows  in  excellent  contrast  with 
spruce  or  other  evergreens. 

The  Hemlocks.  -  -  These  are  also  very  popular  evergreens 
for  lawn  planting  and  for  hedges.  They  stand  shearing  well 
and  will  grow  in  the  shade.  For  planting  in  groups  with 
other  evergreens  they  are  excellent.  The  trees  do  best  with 
a  northern  or  eastern  exposure,  protected  from  drying  winds. 
They  prefer  a  moist  soil.  The  trees  should  be  frequently 
topped  to  maintain  a  dense  growth  of  the  lower  branches. 

The  Arbor  Vitae.  --These  evergreens,  commonly  known 
as  the  white  cedars,  are  quite  different  from  other  ever- 
greens and  very  beautiful  when  properly  used.  They  are 
especially  valuable  in  grouping  with  other  evergreens  or 
in  planting  as  screens  or  hedges.  They  stand  pruning  very 
well  and  can  be  trained  to  almost  any  shape. 

Shrubs.  —  Since  the  planting  of  the  home  grounds  neces- 
sitates the  use  of  hardy  shrubs,  a  few  of  the  most  important 
kinds  are  here  considered. 


BRIDAL  WREATH  SPIREA 


403 


Japanese  Barberry  (Berberis  Thunbergii).  —  The 
Japanese  barberry  is  a  slow-growing  shrub,  especially  de- 
sirable for  low,  ornamental  hedges  and  for  foreground  plant- 
ing of  shrubbery  masses.  It  is  very  graceful  in  its  habit 
of  growth,  producing  small,  delicate,  light  green  leaves 
upon  gracefully  drooping  branches.  The  leaves  turn  a 
beautiful  scarlet  in  the  fall,  and  a  brilliant  winter  effect 
is  produced  by  the 
scarlet  berries  which 
remain  on  the  twigs. 
It  is  perfectly  hardy 
and  grows  well  upon 
the  lighter,  well- 
drained  soils,  and  is 
not  susceptible  to 
the  San  Jose  scale. 

Bridal  Wreath 
Spirea  (Spircea  Van- 
houttei) .  -  -  This  is 
the  most  popular 
spring-flowering  spi- 
rea.  Its  remarkable 
wealth  of  bloom  and 
beautiful  foliage, 
produced  on  grace-  Fig-  2°7-  ~  Bridal  wreath  'm  bloom' 

ful  branches  bending  to  the  ground,  makes  it  exceedingly 
attractive.  It  is  very  hardy  and  grows  well  upon  any 
moderately  rich  and  well-drained  soil.  On  good  soil  it 
is  a  rapid  grower,  attaining  a  height  of  five  to  seven 
feet.  It  is  particularly  adapted  for  mass  planting  about 
the  porch  or  buildings,  or  along  walks,  drives,  or  the 
boundaries  of  the  lawn. 


404         TREES,   SHRUBS,    VINES,   AND    FLOWERS 

Weigela  (Diervilla  florida) .  —  The  weigela  is  a  very  popu- 
lar and  effective  free-flowering  shrub,  which  is  covered 
the  first  of  June  with  a  mass  of  rose-colored  flowers.  It 
grows  to  a  height  of  five  to  seven  feet,  is  perfectly  hardy, 
and  may  be  used  on  the  north  side  of  buildings,  or  in  other 
partly  shaded  situations. 

Golden  Bell  (Forsythia  intermedia) .  —  In  very  early 
spring,  before  the  leaves  appear,  this  shrub  bursts  into  bloom 
with  a  wealth  of  bright  golden-yellow  flowers.  The  shrub 
is  hardy  and  easily  grown,  even  on  very  light  soils.  The 
plant  is  a  vigorous  grower  and  attains  a  height  of  six  to 
ten  feet.  The  foliage,  being  of  a  clean,  light-green  color, 
produces  an  excellent  background  for  low-growing  shrubs. 

Bush  Honeysuckle  (Lonicera  tartarica) .  —  The  bush 
honeysuckle  is  an  excellent  ornamental  shrub  that  acquires 
a  very  graceful  form.  The  foliage  is  abundant  and  of  a 
dark  bluish-green  color.  The  flowers  of  the  several  varieties 
are  white,  pink,  rose,  or  deep  red,  and  possess  a  pleasing 
fragrance.  The  red,  orange,  or  yellow  berries  are  produced 
abundantly  and  are  extremely  ornamental  in  late  summer 
and  fall.  The  shrub  is  perfectly  hardy  and  grows  to  a 
height  of  eight  to  ten  feet. 

Mock  Orange  or  Syringa  (Philadelphus  coronarius) .  - 
There  are  several  varieties  of  this  well-known  shrub  that 
vary  more  or  less  in  the  size  of  their  blossoms  and  height  of 
the  plant.  It  is  prized  especially  for  its  fragrant  white  blos- 
soms, that  are  abundantly  produced  in  June.  It  is  very 
hardy  and  easily  grown  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil.  Most  of 
the  common  varieties  attain  a  height  of  eight  to  ten  feet 
and  are  valuable  for  the  background  of  shrubbery  masses. 

Yellow  Currant  (Ribes  aureum) .  -—  The  flowering  currant 
is  very  popular  as  a  dooryard  shrub.  Its  fragrant  yellow 


JAPANESE  ROSE 


405 


blossoms  and  its  clean-looking  foliage  make  it  very  at- 
tractive. Growing  only  to  a  height  of  three  to  five  feet, 
it  is  especially  desirable  for  planting  about  the  home  and 
in  the .  foreground  of  higher  growing  shrubs.  It  is  very 
hardy  and  does  well  in  partly  shaded  locations. 

Hardy  Hydrangea    (Hydrangea  paniculata  grandiflord). 

-This  is  a  very  attractive  shrub,  producing  excellent  flower 

effects  in  late  summer  and  fall.      It  is  not  entirely  hardy 


Fig.  208.  —  Japanese  snowball. 

in  many  of  the  northern  sections  and  therefore  needs  a 
favored  location  and  a  rich  soil.  It  is  especially  desirable 
for  formal  effects  and  should  be  pruned  well  back  in  early 
spring  to  produce  the  best  flowers. 

Japanese  Rose  (Rosa  rugosa). --The  Japanese  rose  is 
a  favored  shrub  valued  especially  for  its  vigorous  dark-green 
foliage  and  its  large,  single-petaled  flowers  that  are  pro- 
duced continuously  during  late  spring  and  summer.  The 
flowers  are  succeeded  by  large  red  hips  which  are  almost  as 


406          TREES,   SHRUBS,   VINES,   AND   FLOWERS 

ornamental  as  the  roses  themselves.  The  plant  is  very 
hardy  and  especially  beautiful  when  planted  in  masses. 
It  grows  to  a  height  of  four  to  five  feet  and  does  well  even 
in  partly  shaded  locations. 

Lilac  (Syringa  vulgaris}. --The  lilacs  are  hardy  plants 
and  are  especially  desirable  for  backgrounds  of  shrubbery 
masses  and  for  screens. 

Japanese    Snowball    (Viburnum   tomentosum    plicatum). 

-  The  flowers  of  this  shrub  are  similar  to  the  common 
snowball,  but  seem  larger  and  of  a  purer  white  against  the 
heavy  dark-green  foliage.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  eight 
to  ten  feet  and  thrives  well  along  the  north  side  of  buildings 
or  other  partly  shaded  locations.  It  is  not  entirely  hardy 
in  the  northern  districts.  Unlike  the  common  snowball 
it  is  seldom  troubled  with  plant  lice. 

Spirea  Anthony  Waterer.  --  This  spirea  is  a  low,  summer- 
flowering  shrub,  blooming  from  the  middle  of  June  until 
fall.  It  is  an  excellent  hardy  shrub  for  summer  effect  and 
especially  adapted  for  the  foreground  planting  of  shrub- 
bery masses. 

Ornamental  Vines.  —  Vines  are  as  necessary  as  trees 
and  shrubs  in  landscape  decoration.  By  toning  down  the 
stiff,  bold  angles  and  bare  surfaces  of  buildings,  they  pro- 
duce a  harmonious  effect  that  can  be  obtained  in  no  other 
way.  On  small  places  they  are  particularly  valuable.  They 
grow  rapidly  where  other  ornamental  plants  would  have  no 
room  for  development,  and  display  their  beauty  on  steep 
walls,  columns,  and  trellises.  If  correctly  placed,  they 
embellish  rather  than  conceal  the  architecture.  By  plant- 
ing the  less  sightly  portions  and  leaving  the  more  beautiful 
elements  of  the  building  exposed,  even  the  most  ordinary- 
looking  houses  may  often  be  made  attractive. 


ORNAMENTAL   VINES 


407 


Many  of  the  vines,  as  the  wistaria,  climbing  roses,  and 
clematis,  prefer  a  southern  exposure,  while  the  woodbine 
and  American  ivy  thrive  in  shady  places.  For  covering 
screens,  stumps,  rocky  places,  bare  tree  trunks,  walls, 
and  fences  they  are  excellent. 

Of  the  flowering  vines  the  clematis  is  one  of  the  most 
popular.  There  are  two  classes  of  this  vine,  commonly 
known  as  the  large-flowering  and  the  small-flowering 
clematis.  Clematis  Jack- 
manii  is  one  of  the  best 
of  the  large-flowering 
varieties,  while  Clematis 
paniculata  is  the  most 
popular  of  the  small- 
flowering  clematis. 

The  wistaria  is  another 
one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful and  effective  of  the 
flowering  vines,  but  it 
is  rather  slow  in  coming 
into  blossom,  frequently 
requiring  five  to  six  years.  It  prefers  a  southern  exposure 
and  a  moderately  rich,  well-drained  soil. 

The  honeysuckle  thrives  and  blooms  abundantly  either 
in  a  southern  exposure  or  in  shaded  or  partly  shaded  loca- 
tions. Even  upon  poor  soil  on  the  north  side  of  buildings 
the  honeysuckle  grows  better  than  most  other  vines.  It  is 
a  desirable  vine  for  porches,  screens,  walls,  or  for  covering 
bare  places  under  trees. 

Roses  are  an  extremely  popular  class  of  vines  although 
they  require  much  care.  A  southern  exposure  is  preferred 
with  a  moderately  rich  clay  loam  soil.  The  Crimson 


Fig.  209.  —  A  beautiful  effect  produced  by  ivy. 


408          TREES,   SHRUBS,   VINES,   AND    FLOWERS 

Rambler,  Dorothy  Perkins,  and  Lady  Gay  are  three  of  the 
most  beautiful  climbing  roses.  These  vines  are  not  so  sus- 
ceptible to  mildew  as  some  of  the  other  varieties,  and  are 
vigorous,  hardy,  and  very  free  flowering. 

Annual  vines  are  often  desirable  when  producing  quick 
effects.  Screens  may  be  temporarily  produced  by  them  until 
perennial  vines  become  established.  Of  the  annual  vines 


Used  by  courtesy  of  The  Canard  and  Jones  Co. 
Fig.  210.  —  Dorothy  Perkins  rose  vines. 

the  flowering  nasturtium,  morning  glory,  wild  cucumber, 
moon  vine,  and  cobea  are  especially  valuable.  Moon  vines 
and  cobea,  started  indoors  three  to  four  weeks  before  plant- 
ing outside,  will  often  grow  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  in  a 
single  season. 

Hardy  Perennials.  --There  is  not  a  time  during  the 
whole  season  in  which  some  hardy  perennial  is  not  in 
bloom.  During  the  months  of  July  and  August,  when  al- 
most all  the  woody  shrubs  have  ceased  blooming,  these 


ANNUALS  409 

plants  may  be  depended  upon  to  make  a  flower  display. 
When  once  planted,  they  appear  year  after  year  and  flower 
abundantly.  Their  ability  to  thrive  with  little  care  makes 
them  a  desirable  class  of  plants  for  the  home  grounds. 
For  any  soil  or  any  location  there  is  to  be  found  some 
perennial  adapted  to  the  conditions. 

Perennials  are  especially  suitable  for  border  planting, 
and  when  placed  in  front  of  shrubbery  masses,  they  are 
very  effective.  They  may  be  used  along  garden  walks, 
walls,  fences,  against  buildings,  and  in  other  places  about 
the  home  grounds.  Many  of  the  perennials  can  be  grown 
from  seed. 

Of  the  old-time  favorites  there  are  the  foxglove,  holly- 
hock, Sweet  William,  and  phlox.  Then  there  are  the 
columbine,  blanket-flower,  coreopsis,  peony;  and  poppy, 
all  favorites  for  their  flowering  effects.  For  planting 
about  ponds  or  upon  deep,  moist  soil  there  are  the  iris, 
forget-me-not,  lily-of-the-valley,  bee  balm,  trillium,  car- 
dinal flower,  and  the  ornamental  grasses  ;  and  for  late  sum- 
mer and  fall  effects  we  have  the  hardy  chrysanthemum, 
golden  glow,  and  aster  enriching  the  landscape  with  their 
brightness  of  color. 

Annuals.  —  Annuals  are  essential  for  producing  the  best 
and  most  continuous  display  of  flowers  during  the  summer 
months.  They  are  also  especially  valuable  in  producing 
quick  effects.  When  planted  in  the  foreground  of  shrubs 
or  among  perennials,  they  produce  a  pleasing  effect.  In 
the  free  and  natural  style  of  landscape  gardening  they 
should  be  planted  along  the  borders  of  other  plantings,  and 
when  so  arranged  enhance  the  beauty  of  the  entire  design. 

Annuals  are  very  easy  to  grow.  Almost  all  of  them 
may  be  grown  successfully  by  sowing  the  seeds  directly  in 


410         TREES,   SHRUBS,   VINES,  AND   FLOWERS 

permanent  beds ;  but  usually  better  plants  are  obtained 
by  seeding  in  hotbeds  or  boxes  of  earth  and  transplanting 
to  the  open  ground.  Frequently  the  plants  come  into 
blossom  a  month  earlier  when  grown  in  this  manner,  and 
a  longer  flowering  season  is  thus  obtained. 

The  kinds  of  annuals  are  so  numerous  that  a  selection  is 
largely  a  matter  of  personal  preference.  The  sweet  alys- 
sum,  dusty  miller,  candytuft,  and  lobelia  make  excellent 
edging  plants.  For  summer  flower  displays,  nasturtium, 
petunia,  coxcomb,  verbena,  annual  phlox,  poppy,  salvia, 
zinnia,  and  balsam  are  all  easily  grown  and  very  effective. 
Portulaca  is  well  adapted  for  covering  dry,  sandy  banks. 
Heliotrope,  marguerite,  and  mignonette  furnish  our  gar- 
dens with  delightful  fragrance. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Name  some  of  the  important  spring  flowering  shrubs, 
both  wild  and  cultivated,  of  your  locality.     Name  some  of  the 
summer  and  fall  flowering  shrubs. 

2.  Do  you  know  of  any  ornamental  shrubs  of  special  value 
for  their  foliage  effects?     For  their  fruit?     For  the  color  of 
their  bark? 

3.  Name  some  shrubs  especially  valuable  for  hedges. 

4.  Name  some  shrubs  used  for  the  foreground  planting  of 
masses.     For  background  planting. 

5.  Name  as  many  shrubs  as  you  can  that  are  planted  on 
your  home  grounds.     On  the  school  grounds. 

6.  What  is  a  deciduous  tree? 

7.  Explain  the  proper  method  of  transplanting  a  tree. 

8.  Name  and  describe  some  trees  that  are  valuable  as  street 
trees.     As  lawn  trees. 

9.  Name  and  describe  from  sample  branches  six  important 
ornamental  vines  of  your  locality. 


FLOWER   GARDEN   MAKING   CONTEST  411 

10.   Name  the  kinds  of  perennials  growing  on  your  home 
grounds. 

FLOWER   GARDEN  MAKING  CONTEST 

(Adapted  from  "  Educational  Contests  in  Agriculture  and  Home 
Economics."     Office  of  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  255.) 

RULES  GOVERNING  THE  CONTEST 

1.  Requirements  for  entry : 

(a)  All  contestants  shall  be  between  the  ages  of  12  and 
20  years. 

(b)  Each  contestant  shall  be  given  a  plot  of  ground,  of 
the  size  specified  by  the  committee  in  charge,  located  at  the 
home  of  the  contestant,  on  which  to  grow  flowers,  the  seeds  to 
be  furnished  by  the  committee  in  charge;    each  contestant  to 
plant,  cultivate,  and  care  for  the  plot  assigned  without  any 
outside  assistance. 

(c)  Each  contestant   shall  keep  an  accurate  record  of 
the  time  devoted  to  the  garden,  the  varieties  planted,  the  yield 
of  each  variety,  the  cost  of  seed,  etc.,  and  shall  submit  his 
record  to  the  committee  in  charge. 

(d)  Each  contestant  shall  be  required  to  write  an  essay 
of  not  more  than  500  and  not  less  than  300  words,  describing 
the  work  in  the  garden,  the  time  applied,  and  the  pleasure  de- 
rived from  observing  the  growth  of  the  flowers.     These  essays 
shall  be  submitted  to  the  persons  in  charge  not  less  than  three 
days  before  the  date  of  the  contest  awards. 

2.  Basis  of  Awards : 

Essay  and  record 
Grouping  of  flowers 
Success  in  cultivation 
Color  scheme  of  flowers 

Total 


APPENDIX 

I.   PLANTING   TABLE   FOR   FLOWERS 


NAME  OF 
FLOWER 

TIME  TO  Sow 

DEPTH 

TO 

PLANT 

TIME  OF 
FLOWERING 

COLOR  OF 
FLOWERS 

HEIGHT 
(feet) 

In- 
doors 

Out- 
doors 

(inches) 

Early 
Crop 

Main 
Crop 

Alyssum 

Mar. 

Apr. 

i 

July 

Aug. 

White 

i 

sweet  . 

Sept. 

Aster 

Feb. 

May 

\ 

July  to 

Sept.  to 

blue,     red 

China  . 

Apr. 

Aug. 

Oct. 

white 

I 

Balsam  .     . 

Mar. 

May 

i 

2 

May 

July 

red,  white, 

2 

pink 

Carnation 

Feb. 

Apr. 

i 

July 

Sept. 

pink,     red, 

f 

(Margue- 

white, var. 

rite) 

Candytuft 

Apr. 

i 

June  to 

red,  white 

* 

July 

Sept. 

Castor  Oil 

Mar.  |  June 

2 

insignificant 

2  to  8 

May 

Cosmos 

Feb.     Mav 

1 
4 

Aug. 

Oct.  to 

pink,  white, 

4  to  10 

Apr. 

Nov. 

yellow 

Foxglove    . 

Jan.      May 

not 

Aug. 

July  of 

pink,  white 

2  to  4 

covered 

follow- 

ing year 

Lobelia 

Aug. 

Apr. 

i 

Next 

Aug. 

carmine 

! 

cardinalis 

July 

Mignonette 

Feb. 

Apr. 

i 

4 

Mav  to 

July  to 

greenish 

I 

Mar. 

May 

July 

Oct. 

Morning- 

Feb. 

May 

I 

July 

Aug.  to 

blue,    red, 

15  to  30 

glory   .     . 

Apr. 

Oct. 

white,  var. 

Nasturtium 

Mar. 

May 

I 

June 

July  to 

scarlet, 

i  to  5 

Apr. 

Oct. 

yellow, 

maroon 

Pansy    .     . 

Jan. 

June 

i 

May  to 

Sept.  to 

purple, 

2   tO  I 

Feb. 

July 

June 

Oct. 

blue,  white, 

yellow 

Petunia 

Mar. 

May 

not 

May 

Sept. 

magenta, 

i  or  2 

Apr. 

covered 

white 

Phlox, 

Feb. 

Mar. 

i 

May 

July  to 

white,  red, 

\  to  i 

annual 

May 

Aug. 

yellow, 

maroon 

413 


414 


APPENDIX 
II.   PLANTING   AND   SEED   TABLE 


NAME  OF 
VEGETABLE 

DATE  OF  PLANTING 

DEPTH  OF  PLANTING 
(inches) 

DISTANCE  APART  OF  Rows 
(feet) 

Seeds, 
first  crop 

Plants, 
first  crop 

Seeds  for 
succession 

Fall  and 
winter  use 

Beans,  bush  .  .  . 
Beans,  pole  and 
Lima  
Beets 

May  

May   15-31 
April  15-30 

May   20-31 

June  
May-June..  . 

July-Aug  .  . 

1-2 
1-2 

H 

2i-3 

r4 

2|-3 
2J-3 
2*-3 

2*-3 

2-2* 

2J-3 

2*-s 
3-5 

te 

4-6 
3-4 
2*~3 

24-6 
2i-3 

2*-3 
2*-3 
2§-3 
2  $-3 
2*-3 

2  1-3 

2*-3 
2*-3 

2*~3 
6-io 

2*-3 

2    ~3 

2  -3 
2  -3 
2  -3 

3-8 

2*~3 

Brussels  sprouts 
Cabbage,  early 

Cabbage,  late.  . 
Carrots       .  . 

May 

April  15-30 
May  

May  

June  (plants) 

*-* 

Cauliflower  .... 

May  

Celery,  early  .  . 
Celery,  late  .  .  . 

April  15-30 

June(plants) 

"j? 

Corn,  early.  .  .  . 
Corn,  late  

May     1-15 
May  15-31 
May   15-31 

June 

June  

Cucumbers  .... 
Eceolant 

May  20-31 
May  20—31 

June  

Endive  .  ..::: 

April  20-30 

July-Aug  .  . 

H 
H 

Kale.... 
Kohl-rabi  
Lettuce 

May 

April  15-30 
May   15-31 

May     1-15 
April  20-30 
May   20-31 
May  1  5—3  1 

June  (plants) 
May  

June-July.  . 

B 

Muskmelon  .  .  . 
Okra            

Onion,  sets.  .  .  . 
Onion,  seeds.  .  . 

April  15-30 
May    . 

May-  June  .  .  . 

Sept  

i- 

i~~ 

1-2 
1-2 

Parsley  

April  15-30 
May  
April  15-30 

May   1-15 

June 

Parsnips  
Peas,  early  .... 

Peas,  late  

May  i5-June 

Peppers  

May   15—31 

Potatoes,  early 
Potatoes,  late.  . 
Pumpkins  

Radishes,  early 
Radishes,    me- 
dium and  late 
Rutabaga  
Salsify  
Spinach  ..:... 

Squash  
Sweet  potatoes 
Tomatoes  

April  15-30 
May  

June 

2-3 

H 

May   15-31 
April  15-30 

May  
April  15-30 
May      1-15 
April  15-30 

May   15-31 

June    .      ... 

June  
June  10-20 

Aug.-Sept. 

May   20-31 
May   15—31 

May   15-31 

Turnips  
Watermelons  .  . 

April  15-30 
May   15-31 

May  

July-Aug  .  . 

2 

From  Bulletin.  "The  Home  Vegetable  Garden  "  by  C.  W.  Waid,  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 


APPENDIX  415 

FOR  VEGETABLES   FOR  THE   HOME   GARDEN 


^ 

DIS- 

DISTANCE 

"^ 

* 

rt 

Q  § 

TANCE 
APART 

APART  OF 
PLANTS  IN 

FOR  A  100  FOOT  Row 

I 

W 

o 

0 

§  S3 
pa 

0~H 

OF 

Rows 

Rows 

W  >> 

O 

H 

c/5 

H 

W  w 

£3 

0 

H 

gl« 

*$ 

CQ 

Hand 

g 

? 

H! 

HO 

-  < 

culti- 

Hills 

Drills 

Seeds 

Plants 

*H 

g 

O 

o  w 

|9 

|U 

vation 

(inches) 

'&& 

H 

£ 

<  a 

o£ 

w  S 

18-30 

8-12 

3-4 

1-2  pt.  .  . 

100-150* 

45-65 

2OO-250 

30 

5-10 

90 

3 

2-6 

18-  o 

5-6 

I  pt. 

35-65* 

50-80 

I5O—2OO 

30 

5—  o 

90 

3 

18-24 



2-3 

2  OZ  

80-100 

60-85 

10 

7-  o 

140 

4 

18-30 

18-24 

j  OZ  

50-75 

95-120 

25 

5—  o 

90 

3 

18—30 

12-18 

i  OZ  

50-90 

90—105 

8,500 

25 

5"  o 

90 

3 

18-30 

18-24 

j  OZ  

50-75 

100-150 

8,500 

25 

00 

3 

18-24 

3—4 

\  oz. 

75—110 

2O,OOO 

9 

12-  8 

80 

i 

18-30      18-24 

ioz  

50-75 

100—130 

10,500 

25 

5-  o 

80 

4 

18-30     

4-5 

j  OZ  

250-300 

120-130 

20,000 

14 

10-20 

60 

2 

1  8-60 

5-6 

i  oz  

200-250 

130-150 

2O,OOO 

14 

10-20 

60 

2 

24-36 

18-24 

8-10 

1  pt  

50-65* 

65-90 

20 

5-8 

85 

I 

24—36         2A—  *6        IO-I2 

\  pt  

35—50* 

75-100 

20 

5-8 

85 

I 

48-60 

48-60 

12-18 

-  f  «• 

\  oz  

8o-ioo* 

60-80 

I,OOO 

18 

6-io 

85 

5 

24-36 

24-36 

i  oz.    .  .  . 

25-50 

150-160 

7,800 

18 

5-10 

75 

5 

I  2-1  8 

12-18 

I  OZ  

75-iOQ 

90-130 

l8,OOO 

12 

5-io 

85 

2 

18-30 

8-15 

1  oz  

80-150 

90-120 

8,500 

25 

5-10 

90 

2 

18-30 
I  2-1  8 

1  2-1  8 

6-8 
4-12 

\  oz  
1  oz  

120-150 
100-300 

60-80 
60-90 

8,500 
23,000 

25 
15 

5-10 
6-8 

00 

85 

I 

4 

48-60 

48-^60 

12-18 

1-2  OZ.  .  . 

20-25* 

120-150 

1,  600 

13 

7-10 

85 

5 

18-30 

18-30 

i  oz  

40-50 

500 

22 

6-10 

80 

4 

1  2-1  8 

2—7 

2\  qt 

25—50 

I 

12-18 

lf-2 

f  oz. 

130—150 

7,OOO 

18 

7—10 

80 

i 

12-18 

6-10 

\  oz  

120-200 

90-120 

18 

10-18 

70 

i 

18-24 

3—4 

125—160 

7,OOO 

1C 

10—  10 

70 

i 

18-30 

Drilled 

i  qt  

40-80 

50-150 

28 

6-10 

90 

3 

24-36 

Drilled 

i  qt  

65-90 

50-100 

25 

6-10 

90 

'3 

18-30 

15-18 

i  oz  

"65-80"" 

100-140 

4,500 

16 

9-14 

75 

3 

18-30 

9—15 

8-10  Ib. 

80-100 

i 

24-30 

12-18 

8-10  Ib 

100—140 

i 

72-96 

72—96 

I  OZ. 

12—15* 

100—140 

9 

7—10 

85 

3 

12-18 

Drilled 

I  OZ. 

30-40 

IO,OOO 

25 

3-6 

90 

2 

12-18 

Drilled 

I  OZ  

35-50 

10,000 

25 

3^6 

90 

2 

18-24 

6-10 

I  OZ  

120-200 

75-100 

13,000 

25 

4-8 

85 

4 

18-24 

3-4 

I  OZ  

120-180 

3,000 

8 

7-12 

75 

2 

18-24 

4-6 

I  OZ. 

30—60 

2,500 

13 

7—12 

80 

2 

36-96 

36-84 

4  oz  

15-35* 

60-125 

100-500 

15 

7-10 

85 

3 

24-36 

14-18 

65—75 

120—130 

i 

£ 

24-36 

18-36 

4  OZ  

35-75 

100-140 

10,000 

ii 

6-12 

85 

5 

18-24 

4H3 

\  oz 

60-80 

24 

4-8 

85 

60-72 

60-72 

3-4  oz.  .  . 

16-20* 

100-150 

125-150 

16 

7-10 

85 

5 

'Hills. 


416 


APPENDIX 


III.    LEGAL  WEIGHT  PER  MEASURED  BUSHEL  IN  MOST  STATES  FOR  THE 

COMMON    FIELD    SEEDS,    AND    RATE    OF    SEEDING    PER    ACRK 


POUNDS  PER  BUSHEL 

RATE  OF  SEED  PER  ACRE 

Alfalfa,  humid  sections     .     . 
Alfalfa,  semiarid      .... 
Alsike  clover  ... 

60 
60 
60 

15  to  25  Ib. 
2  to  10  Ib. 
6  to  10  Ib 

Barley  

48 

i\  to  2  bu 

Corn  in  ear 

7° 

8  to  12  Ib 

Corn  shelled 

c6 

8  to  12  Ib 

Mammoth  clover    .... 
Oats      

60 
32 

10  to  12  Ib. 
2  to  3  bu. 

Peas 

60 

2  to  3^  bu 

Potatoes 

60 

10  to  15  bu.v 

Red  clover 

60 

10  to  12  Ib. 

Soy  beans,  broadcast  . 
Soy  beans,  in  drills      .     .     . 
Timothy 

60 
60 

4.r 

go  Ibs. 
20  to  60  Ib. 
10  to  12  Ib. 

Vetch 

60 

30  to  60  Ib. 

Wheat  

60 

« 

i£  to  2  bu. 

INDEX 


M.    AND   H.    PLANT   PROD. 27 


INDEX 


Agronomy,  n 
Alfalfa,  141 

acreage  to  sow,  154 

artificial  cultures  for  inoculation,  156 

beneficial  effect  on  soil,  142 

curing,  150 

danger  of  bloat,  152 

depth  to  sow,  146 

enemies,  159 

exercises,  159 

fall  plowing,  143 

feeding  value,  157 

growth,  habits  of,  141 

hard  seeds,  145 

home  projects,  160 

inoculation  methods,  155 

loss  of  feeding  value,  151 

nitrogen  gatherer,  141 

rate  of  seeding,  146 

root  system,  141,  142 

rotation,  156 

seed  bed,  142 

seed  production,  152 

seed  testing,  144 

seeding  methods,  148 

soil  acidity,  158 

soil  inoculation,  154 

soiling  and  pasture  crop,  152 

sowing  with  nurse  crop,  147 

sowing  without  nurse  crop,  145 

spring  plowing,  143 

stacking  alfalfa,  153 

sweet     clover    soil     for    inoculation, 
154 

tester,  simple  plate,  144 

varieties,  141 
Alsike  clover,  125 

adaptation,  126 

description,  125 

uses,  126 
Annuals,  408 
Aphis,  272 


Apples,  301 

care  of  trees,  249 

cultivation,  304 

planting,  302 

propagation,  302 

varieties,  244,  304 
Arbor  vitae,  402 
Arsenate  of  lead,  286 
Artificial  cultures  for  inoculation,  156 

Bacterial  diseases,  278 
Barberry,  Japanese,  403 
Barley,  79 

classification,  80 

diseases,  85 

habits  of  growth,  81 

harvesting,  82 

history,  79 

home  projects,  89 

hot- water  treatment  for  smut,  86 

insect  enemies,  85 

judging,  60 

marketing,  84 

rotation,  84 

score  card,  87 

scoring,  88 

shocking,  83 

smut,  85,  86 

soil,  81 

sowing  seed,  82 

straw,  objections  to,  82 

testing  the  seed,  82 

threshing,  84 

treatment  for  smut,  85 

trueness  to  type,  60 

variety  differences,  84 
Beech,  400 

Bees  in  white  clover  regions,  126 
Bitter  rot,  276 
Blackberries,  333 

culture,  333 

propagation,  333 


419 


420 


INDEX 


Blackberries    -Continued 

pruning,  334 

soil,  333 

varieties,  335 
Black  knot,  278 
Blight,  leaf,  278 

Blue  grass  (see  Kentucky  blue  grass) 
Bordeaux  mixture,  283 
Borers,  273 
Brambles,  333 
Breeding,  39,  112 

centgener  method,  1 1 2 

corn,  39,  50 

grain,  112 

Bridal  wreath  spirea,  403 
Bridge  grafting,  235 
Brome  grass,  169,  170 

contamination  of  seed,  lOy 

harvesting,  170 

history,  169 

rotation,  170 
Brown  rot,  276 
Buckwheat,  107 

adaptation,  108 

enemies,  no 

exercises,  no 

growth,  habits  of,  107 

harvesting,  109 

history,  107 

home  projects,  1 1 1 

rate  of  seeding,  109 

rotation,  no 

seed  bed,  108 

sowing  seed,  109 

threshing,  109 

uses,  no 

varieties,  107 
Budding,  230 

cutting  buds,  231 

inserting  buds,  231 

selecting  buds,  231 
Bulb,  210 
Bulbels,  211 
Bulblet,  2ii 
Bush  fruits,  329 
Bush  honeysuckle,  404 

Cankerworm,  269 
Capillary  water,  13 
Centgener  method  of  breeding,  1 1 2 
Cherries,  315 
culture,  315 


Cherries  —  Continued 

harvesting,  ,-5 1(> 

soil,  315 

Chewing  insects,  268 
Cleft  grafting,  235 
Clematis,  407 
Clover,  1 20 

alsike,  125 

mammoth,  125 

red,  1 20 

redtop,  171 
Codling  moth,  268 
Cold  frames,  361 
Colorado  beetle,  180 

Commercial    fertilizers    for    vegetables, 
350 

lime,  351 

nitrogen,  350 

phosphorus,  351 

potassium,  351 

Cooperation  in  marketing,  378 
Copper  sulphate  solution,  283 
Cormels,  211 
Corms,  2ii 
Corn,  17 

acclimatization,  50 

breeding,  39,  50 

butts,  50 

checking,  27,  32 

circumference  of  ear,  54 

classification,  17 

cob,  47 

color  of  grain  and  cob,  47 

"corn  tree,"  36 

cultivation,  27 

culture,  24 

curing  seed,  32 

dent  corn,  20 

devices  for  curing,  35 

drilling,  27 

ear-to-row  method  of  breeding,  39 

exercises,  37 

flint  corn,  19 

fodder,  28 

germination,  31 

growth,  habits  of,  2 1 

harvesting,  28 

harvesting  for  silage,  29 

height  of  ear,  33 

history,  17 

home  projects,  .^S 

improvement,  41 


IXDEX 


421 


— < 

-i-.og,  41,49 
kernels,  52,  61 
leaves,  22 

U'ucth  of  Hf,  5; 

market  condition.  40 

mixture.  40 

moisture  in  md,    ^ 

oil  in  kernelv  :4 

ivreeniace  ol  (EMU  to  DOfe,  g| 

planting,  26 

plowing  for,  24 

pod  a>ra.  1 7 

poltination.  23 

popoorau  tS 

purity.  23 

roots.  :: 


.45.50 

:  for  ezhftbitia*,  44 
score  card,  43 
«  59 
,3- 


seed  selection.  30.  52,  41 
seed  stance,  34 
seedtetitiac,  50 
shape  of  ear,  46 


tt 


- 


ti^tiuc  the-  pbuater,  i  i 


lips.  50 
Type.  40 
uses.  24 
varieties,  21 


(\>non.  1  88 


193 


'.XV 


195 


Cotton  — 

insect  enemies,  108 
fong^taple,  101 
marketing.  108 
pUnting,  105 
seed,  101 
anils  194 
itaes*  198 
varieties,  18%  191 

Cover  crops,  104 
for  garden,  352 
for  humus,  352 
for  orchard,  256 
plowing  under,  258 
seed  table,  258 

Crops,  leguminous,  120 

Crow  breeding,  117 

Crown  gall,  281 

Crowns,  212 

Cultivation,  1$,  304 
orchard.  255 
peach,  312 


Currants,  329 


112 
HO 


226 


219 


root,  221 


210 
222 


iber,  190 

s> 


o: 


tober,  220 


ouhurc.    ;;, 


422 


INDEX 


Dewberries  —  Continued 

pruning,  334 

soil  333 
Diervilla,  404 
Diseases,  alfalfa,  159 

barley,  85 

cotton,  198 

fruit,  274 

fungous,  274 

potatoes,  1 80 

wheat,  76 

Dissemination  of  seeds,  119 
Distances  of  planting  fruits,  244 
Distribution  of  produce,  379 
Division  as  means  of  propagation,  212 

Elm,  399 

Enemies  of  the  pomes,  306 
Ergot,  105 

Evergreens  for  home  planting,  400 
Exercises,  16,  37,  65,  99,  106,  no,  119, 
139,  159, 187,  200,  208,  215,  226,  238, 
250,  265,  281,  289,  299,  308,  317,  336, 
346,  353>  358,  367,  374,  38i,  396,  410 
Fertility,  maintaining  orchard,  255 
Fertilizers,  15 

barnyard  manure,  259 

commercial,  259,  350 

cover  crops,  256 

essential,  15 

for  alfalfa,  147 

for  lawns,  387 

for  vegetables,  348 
Fire  blight,  278 
Flats  for  starting  plants,  372 
Flower  garden  making  contest,  411 
Flowering  currant,  404 
Forsythia,  404 
Fruit,  diseases,  274 

grading,  296 

growing,  240 

insects,  267 

packages,  297 

packing,  297 

pests,  267 

storage,  298 

thinning,  291 
Fruits,  bush,  329 
Fungus,  shot-hole,  277 

Germination,  requirements,  203 
tests,  202 
time  required,  205 


Glass  structures,  360 
Golden  bell,  404 
Gooseberries,  329 

diseases,  332 

fertilizers,  331 

harvesting,  331 

insects,  332 

pruning,  330 

spraying,  332 
Grading  fruits,  296 
Grafting,  228 

bridge,  235 

cleft,  235 

functions,  228 

inserting  buds,  232 

limitations,  223 

tongue,  234 
Grain  breeding,  1 1 2 

centgener  method,  112 

crossing  method,  117 

dissemination,  119 

exercises,  119 

head-to-row  method,  114 

home  project,  119 

selection  method,  112 
Grapes,  319 

culture,  319 

diseases,  322 

insects,  322 

propagation,  319 

pruning,  320 

score  card,  336 

spraying,  323 
Greenhouse,  construction,  363 

soils,  364 

temperature,  365 

watering,  366 

Hardy  hydrangea,  405 
Hardy  perennials,  408 
Harvesting,  alfalfa,  149 

barley,  82 

brome  grass,  170 

buckwheat,  109 

corn,  28 

fruits,  293 

oats,  94 

peas,  131 

potatoes,  181,  182 

red  clover,  122 

redtop,  172 

rye,  103 


INDEX 


423 


Harvesting  —  Continued, 

soy  beans,  137 

timothy,  163 

vegetables,  376 

wheat,  73 
Hay  crops,  161 

alfalfa,  149 

clovers,  120,  126 

rye,  104,  128 

soy  beans,  134 

vetch,  128 

Head- to-row  breeding,  114 
Heeling  in,  246 
Hellebore,  287 
Hemlock,  402 
Home  gardening,  337 
Home  projects,  16,  38,  66,  78,  89,  100, 
106,  in,  119,  140,  160, 172,  187,  200, 
209,  216,  226,  239,  251,  266,  282,  290, 
300,  309,  3i8,  336,  353,  359,  367,  397 
Honeysuckle,  bush,  404 
Horticulture,  201 
Hotbeds,  360 
Hydrangea,  hardy,  405 

Inarching,  237 
Inoculation  of  soil,  155 

for  alfalfa,  156 

for  soy  beans,  138 
Insect  enemies,  alfalfa,  159 

barley,  85 

cotton,  198 

orchards,  267 

potatoes,  1 80 

stone  fruits,  316 

wheat,  76 

Insects,  chewing,  268 
Irrigation  of  vegetable  gardens,  354 

Japanese  barberry,  403 
Japanese  rose,  405 
Japanese  snowball,  406 
Judging  corn,  41 
Judging  small  grains,  59,  66 

color,  6 1 

damaged  kernels,  64 

exercises,  65 

freedom  from  mixture,  61 

freedom  from  weed  seed,  63 

hardness  and  texture,  64  . 

home  projects,  66 

odor,  64 

score  cards,  65 


Judging  small  grains  —  Continued, 
size  of  kernels,  61 
trueness  to  type,  60 
uniformity  in  size  and  shape,  61 
viability,  64 
weight  per  bushel,  63 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  166 
harvesting  for  seed,  168 
hay  crop,  166 
lawn  grass,  168 
pasture,  166 
rate  of  seeding,  168 
soil  adaptation,  169 
uses,  1 68 
weight  of  seed  per  bushel,  168 

Landscape  gardening,  382 

formal  style,  382 

lawn,  387 

mass  planting,  394 

natural  style,  382 

picturesque  style,  382 

planting  the  grounds,  390 

selecting  plants,  395 

walks  and  drives,  386 
Landscape  planting  plan,  392 
Lawn  grass,  168,  387,  389 
Lawns,  387 
Layerage,  213 

air,  215 

mound,  215 

serpentine,  215 

simple,  214 

tip,  214 

Laying  out  the  orchard,  247 
Leaf  blight,  278 
Leguminous  crops,  120 
Lilac,  406 
Lime,  15 
Lime-sulphur  sprays,  concentrated,  288 

dilute,  285 

self -boiled,  284 

strong,  287 
"Little  peach,"  280 
Longevity  of  seeds,  203 

Maintaining  orchard  fertility,  255 

Mammoth  clover,  125 

Manure  as  fertilizer,  15,  147,  348 

Maples,  399 

Market  gardening,  338 

Marketing,  84 


424 


INDEX 


Marketing  —  Continued 

barley,  84 

cotton,  198 

timothy,  164 

vegetables,  377 
Mass  planting,  394 
Mixing  fertilizers,  352 
Mixtures,  grass,  162 
Mock  orange,  404 
Moisture  for  seeds,  203 
Moth,  codling,  268 
Mowing  lawns,  390 

Nitrogen,  n,  15 
Nurse  crop,  alfalfa,  145 

barley,  82 

oats,  94 

rye,  103,  127 

Oaks,  398 
Oats,  91 

diseases,  95 

exercises,  99 

growth,  habits  of,  92 

harvesting,  94 

history,  91 

home  projects,  100 

immunity  to  rust,  96 

judging,  60 

Kherson,  94 

nurse  crop  for  clover,  94 

rate  of  seeding,  94 

rotation,  95 

rust,  95 

score  card,  98 

scoring,  98 

smut,  96 

soil,  94 

threshing,  94 

treatment  for  smut,  97 

varieties,  92 
Orchard,  fertility,  255 

maintenance,  249 

management,  253 

site  selection,  240 
Orchard  grass,  1 70 

character  of  plant,  170 

hay,  171 

rate  of  seeding,  171 

sowing  seed,  17  i 

uses,  171 
Oxygen  for  germination,  204 


Packages  for  vegetables,  376 
Packing  fruits,  297 
Paris  green,  286 
Pasture  crops,  161 

alfalfa,  151 

grasses,  161 

rye,  104,  128 

timothy,  165 
Peach,  culture,  310 

cultivation,  312 

planting,  310 

pruning,  311 

rules  for  planting,  310 

varieties,  313 

yellows,  280 
Peach-leaf  curl,  277 
Pears,  culture,  305 

planting,  305 

propagation,  305 

pruning,  305 

varieties,  306 
Peas,  129 

canning,  131 

classification,  129 

field,  131 

growth,  habits  of,  129 

harvesting,  131 

rate  of  seeding,  130 

rotation,  132 

seed  bed,  1 29 

soil  requirements,  130 

sowing  seed,  130 

threshing,  131 

uses,  132 

varieties,  129 
Perennials,  hardy,  408 
Philadelphus,  404 
Phosphorus,  n,  15 
Picking  fruits,  293 
Pines,  402 

Planning  fruit  garden,  241 
Plant  lice,  272 
Planting,  alfalfa,  146 

apple  trees,  302 

barley,  82 

buckwheat,  iqo 

corn,  26 

cotton,  195 

fruit  trees,  247 

home  grounds,  390 

peaches,  310 

peas,  130 


INDEX 


425 


Planting  —  Continued 

potatoes,  177 

red  clover,  121 

soy  beans,  136 

timothy,  162 

wheat,  71 
Planting  tables,  flowers,  413 

vegetables,  414 
Plowing,  for  alfalfa,  143 

for  corn,  24 

vegetable  garden,  354 
Plum  curculio,  270 
Plums,  culture,  314 

soil,  314 

varieties,  313 
Pollination  of  corn,  23 
Pomes,  301 

enemies  of,  306 
Potash,  n,  15 
Potatoes,  174 

arsenate  of  lead,  181 

blight,  treatment  for,  180 

breeding,  183 

classification,  174 

Colorado  beetle,  180 

diseases,  178 

diseases,  prevention  of,  178 

exercises,  187 

feed  for  animals,  176 

growth,  habits  of,  175 

growth,  period  of,  175 

harvesting,  181 

history,  174 

home  projects,  187 

improvement,  182 

insect  control,  180 

methods  of  planting,  177 

new  varieties,  creating,  175 

Paris  green,  181 

planting,  177 

scab,  treatment  for,  180 

score  card,  185 

seed,  175 

seed  bed,  177 

spray  solutions,  179 

storage,  176,  182 

uses,  176 

Preparation  of  orchard  soils,  246 
Propagation,  305 

air  layering,  2 1 5 

by  cuttings,  218 

by  division,  212 


Propagation  —  Continued 

by  layerage,  213 

by  seeds,  201 

by  separation,  210 

mound  layering,  215 

of  apples,  302 

of  blackberries,  333 

of  dewberries,  333 

of  pears,  305 

of  raspberries,  233 

serpentine  layering,  215 

simple  layering,  214 

tip  layering,  214 
Protein  food,  135 
Pruning  bearing  trees,  263 

functions,  261 

method,  264 

orchards,  260 

peaches,  311 

season,  263 

Quinces,  306 

Raspberries,  333^ 

culture,  333 

propagation,  333 

pruning,  334 

soil,  333 

varieties,  335 
Rate  of  seeding,  alfalfa,  146 

buckwheat,  109 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  168 

oats,  94 

peas,  130 

red  clover,  121 

redtop,  172 

rye,  102 

wheat,  73 
Red  clover,  1 20 

adaptation,  120 

curing  the  hay,  122 

cutting  stage,  122 

hay,  122 

mixture  with  timothy,  121 

rate  of  seeding,  121 

second  cutting,  122 

seed,  123 

sowing  seed,  121 

time  of  seeding,  121 

yield  of  seed,  123 
Redtop,  171 

harvesting,  172 


426 


INDEX 


Redtop  —  Continued 

rate  of  seeding,  172 

soil  adaptation,  171 

sowing  seed,  172 
Rootstock,  212 
Rose,  climbing,  407 

Japanese,  405 
Rotation,  alfalfa,  156 

barley,  84 

buckwheat,  no 

cotton,  196 

oats,  95 

peas,  132 

rye,  101 

timothy,  162 

wheat,  75 

Rules  for  planting  peach,  310 
Rust,  oat,  95 

rye,  106 

wheat,  76 
Rye,  101 

classes,  101 

cover  crop,  104 

diseases,  105 

ergot,  105 

exercises,  106 

growth,  habits  of,  101 

harvesting,  103 

hay  crop,  104 

home  projects,  106 

judging,  60 

nurse  crop,  103,  127 

pasture  crop,  104,  128 

rate  of  seeding,  102 

rotation,  101 

rust,  1 06 

seed  beds,  101 

straw,  105 

threshing,  103 

uses,  103 

Scab,  1 80,  275 

School  gardening  work,  347,  358,  367,  375 

Seed  bed,  alfalfa,  142 

buckwheat,  108 

corn,  24,  27 

peas,  1 29 

potatoes,  177 

rye,  101 

vetch,  129 

wheat,  70 
Seed  longevity,  203 


Seed  production,  alfalfa,  152 

corn,  30,  41 

red  clover,  123 

timothy,  165 

vetch,  128 
Seed  sowing,  368 
Seed,  storage,  206 

corn,  34 

potatoes,  176,  182 

soy  beans,  138 
Seed  stratification,  207 
Seed  table,  374,  413,  414 
Seed  testing,  201 

barley,  82 

corn,  30 

timothy,  161 

wheat,  82 

Selecting  plants — landscape  planting,  395 
Selection,  breeding  by,  112 

of  building  sites,  384 
Separation,  propagation  by,  210 
Shot- hole  fungus,  277 
Shrubbery  planting,  395 
Shrubs,  402 
Silage,  29 
Smut,  barley,  85,  86 

oats,  96 

wheat,  76 
Snowball,  406 
Soil,  color,  12 

composition,  n 

kinds,  12 

mulch,  15 

water,  13 
Soil  requirements,  alfalfa,  142 

alsike  clover,  126 

barley,  81 

buckwheat,  108 

corn,  25 

cotton,  194 

mammoth  clover,  125 

oats,  94 

orchard,  246 

orchard  grass,  170 

peas,  130 

red  clover,  1 20 

redtop,  172 

rye,  101 

white  clover,  126 
Sowing  lawn  seed,  390 
Soy  boa  us,  132 

classification,  133 


INDEX 


427 


Soy  beans  —  Continued 

composition,  134 

cultivation,  136 

description,  133 

digestible  nutrients,  136 

exercises,  139 

growth,  habits  of,  133 

harvesting,  137 

hay,  134,  135 

history,  132 

home  projects,  140 

planting,  136 

protein  food,  135 

soil  inoculation,  138 

storing,  138 

threshing,  138 

uses,  134 

varieties,  134 
Spirea,  403 

Anthony  Waterer,  406 
Splice  grafting,  233 
Spores,  propagation  by,  207 
Spraying  mixtures,  283 
Spruces,  401 

Stable  manure  for  vegetables,  348 
Stolons,  212 
Stone  fruits,  310 

cherries,  315 

diseases,  316 

insects,  316 

peaches,  310 

plums,  313 
Storage,  fruit,  298 

vegetables,  380 
Stratification  of  seeds,  207 
Strawberries,  324 

cultivation,  327 

culture,  324 

diseases,  328 

insects,  328 

soil,  324 

varieties,  328 
Sucking  insects,  271 
Syringa,  404 
Systems  of  orchard  planting,  242 

alternate,  243 

distances  between  trees,  243 

hexagonal,  243 

square,  242 

Temperature  requirements  of  seeds,  204 
Tent  caterpillar,  270 


Thinning  fruits,  291 
Threshing,  barley,  84 

buckwheat,  109 

oats,  94 

peas,  131 

rye,  103 

soy  beans,  138 

wheat,  73 
Tillage  of  vegetable  gardens,  354 

cultivation,  355 

harrowing,  354 

plowing,  354 
Time,  for  planting  orchards,  246 

for  planting  seeds,  374 
Time  required  for  germination,  205 
Timothy,  161 

cutting  and  curing,  163 

growth,  habits  of,  166 

harvesting  for  seed,  165 

marketing  hay,  164 

mixture,  162 

naked  seeds,  161 

pasturing,  165 

rotation,  162 

side-delivery  rake,  164 

sowing  seed,  162 

storing  hay,  164 

testing  seed,  161 

varieties,  161 
Tobacco,  288 
Tongue  grafting,  234 
Transplanting  vegetables,  370 
Trees  for  landscape  planting,  398 
Truck  gardening,  338 
Tuber,  212 

Varieties,  of  apples,  304 

of  peaches,  313 

of  plums,  313 

selecting,  244,  340 
Vegetable  forcing,  340 
Vegetable  garden,  climate,  342 

destroying  insects,  345 

location,  341 

plan,  342 

planning,  343 

preventing  diseases,  344 

rotation,  344 

selecting  varieties,  340 
Vegetable  gardening,  337 
Vegetable  packages,  376 
Vegetable  storage,  380 


428 


INDEX 


Vetch,  126 
hairy,  127 
kinds,  129 
rate  of  seeding,  127 
seed  description,  1 28 
seed  production,  128 
sowing  seed,  127 
uses,  128 

Viability,  64,  82 

Vines,  ornamental,  406 

Walks  and  drives,  386 
Web  worm,  270 
Weights,  table  of,  416 
Wheat,  67 

bluestem,  69 

classification,  67,  69 

durum,  69 

enemies,  76 

Fife,  69 

Fultz,  67 

grading,  71 


Wheat  —  Continued 

growth,  habits  of,  70 

harvesting,  73 

history,  67 

home  projects,  78 

insect  pests,  76 

judging,  60 

Marquis,  69 

rate  of  seeding,  73 

rotation,  75 

score  card,  77 

scoring,  76 

seed  bed,  70 

sowing  seed,  71 

testing  seed,  71 

threshing,  73 

varieties,  67 

velvet  chaff,  69 
White  cedar,  402 
White  clover,  1 26 

Yellow  currant,  404 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA 
BRANCH    OF    THE    COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


joU  LIBRARY 

)UE  8 1970 


DEC  14 


REC'B 


3m-9,'30 


401777 

2  -  -  - 

-io  ore,    -t,    A 

, 

^L  I  0*11  t    j/ro( 

LUCtlOil* 

.1*1*    -i. 

>my*     Pt.Ii 

tlortic^l 

401777 


UNIN/ERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


